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THE 



CLASSICAL MANUAL: 

AN EPITOME OF 

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, 

GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, 

ANTIQUITIES, 

AND CHRONOLOGY. 

CHIEFLY INTENDED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 

COMPUTED HY 

JAMES S. S. BAIRD, 

TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN, 

ASSISTANT CLASSICAL MASTER, KING'S SCHOOL, 

GLOUCESTER. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY C. LEA. 

1866. 






Exchange 
IQniv. of Mich. 

$gT 1 4 1933 



VO THB 

REV THOMAS EVANS, D.D. 

HEAD MASTER OF KING'S SCHOOL, GLOUCESTER, 

THIS LITTLE WORK 

<fl RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, 

BY 

SIS OBLIGED AND FAITHFUL SERVANT, 

JAMES S. S. BAIRD. 



(UO 



PREFACE. 



Many excellent works have recently issued from the 
press, which, either separately or in the form of diction- 
aries, treat of the subjects of the following pages : and yet 
the want of an Epitome has been recognized, which would 
contain, in the compass of a single volume, of small size 
and moderate price, as much information upon such points 
as is calculated to elucidate the Greek and Roman authors 
usually read in the junior forms of our schools. It has 
been the object of the compiler of the present manual to 
supply this deficiency by introducing into it such details 
as are most likely to be useful (indeed much of which is 
absolutely necessary to the classical student) in so small 
a space as to admit of its being thoroughly mastered and 
retained. Although at first the requirements of junior 
forms were chiefly contemplated, yet in the progress of the 
work so much additional matter has been supplied as, it is 
hoped, will render it not unacceptable to more advanced 
students. 

In the compilation, the best and most recent authorities 
have been consulted, but particular obligations must be 
acknowledged to the following works : Dr. William Smith's 
1* (v) 



VI PREFACE. 

Dictionaries of "Greek and Roman Mythology and Bio- 
graphy," " Greek and Roman Antiquities," and " Classical 
Dictionary;" the Rev. T. K. Arnold's editions of the 
" Handbook of Ancient Geography and History," by "W. 
Piitz, and the " Handbooks of Greek and Roman Anti- 
quities," by Dr. Bojesen. The editor's best thanks are 
also due to the Rev. H. Haines, 31. A., Second Master of 
the King's School, Gloucester, for his kind supervision of 
these pages while passing through the press, and also for 
the valuable assistance he has afforded in several parts of 
the work. 

J. S. S. B. 

Gloucester, January, 1852. 



C N T E N T S 



GEOGRAPHY. 

EUROPE. 

r-.r« 
?:ivers. Mountains, L 

Islands.. 13, 14 

Hispania. — Boundaries. Mountain;. Rivers, Promon* 

Divisions, Tribes 16 

T arraconensis. Lusitania. Bsetiea. Islands.... 16 
Gallia. Boundaries, Mountains, I:. -.17 

Narbonensis ib. 

A q u i t a n i a. L u g d u n e n s i = 18 

Gallia Belgica. mas 19 

Ger mania. — Bound 

Tribes 20 

Vindelicia, Rhsetia, Xoricum. Pannon'a, Illvri- 
cum. — Vindelicia. Boundaries. Rivers, Tr. 

Towns 21 

Rhfetia. Boundaries.. Rivers, Tribes ib. 

2s oricum. Boundaries ib. 

Siren, Towns 22 

Pannonia. Boundaries, Rivers. 

Towns ib. 

Illyricum. Boundaries, Mountains. Divisions ib. 

Towns, Islands - 

Italia. — Boundaries, Gulfs, Strait, Mountains ib. 

Rivers, Lakes 2 -J 

Capes. Divisions 25 

Liguria, Gallia Cisalpina or Togata ib. 

Tenetia, Carni. Histria, Etruria 26 

Umbria, Picenum, Sabinum 27 

Latium, Samnium 25 

C a m p a n i a , A p u 1 i a 29 

Lucania, Bruttium SO 

Islands: .Si cilia ib. 

Mcesia. — Boundaries. Divisions, Tiibes. Rivers. Towns.... 31 

Daeia. — Boundaries. Rivers, Tribes 32 

Sarmatia. — Boundaries, Tribes. Towns ib. 

(7) 



VU1 CONTENTS. 

Macedonia. — Boundaries 32 

Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers, Divisions, Cities 33 

Illyris Grseca ib. 

Thracia. — Boundaries, Straits, &c, Mountains, Rivers, Cities 34 

Grsecia. — Boundaries ib. 

Gulfs, Strait, Mountains, Rivers 35, 36 

Lakes, Promontories, Divisions 37 

Thessalia ib. 

Epirus, Acarnania, iEtolia, Doris, Locris 38 

Phocis, Boeotia 39 

Attica, Megaris (Peloponnesus), Achaia, Elis 40 

Messenia, Laconia, Argolis 41 

Arcadia, Corinthia, Sicyonia ,.. 42 

Greek Islands. — In the Ionian and iEgean Seas 43 

Britannia or Albion. — Boundaries, Rivers, Promontories, 

Divisions 44 

Tribes, Towns, Islands 45 

ASIA. 

Countries, Mountains, Seas and Gulfs, Rivers, Islands 46, 47 

Asia Minor. — Boundaries, Gulfs, Mountains, Rivers 47 

Lake, Promontories, Divisions 48 

Bithynia ib. 

Paphlagonia, Pontus, Mysia, Lydia or Maeonia 49 

Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia 50 

Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, the Six Dorian 

States, the Twelve Ionian States 51 

iEtolian League, "Seven Churches of Asia" 52 

Island : Cyprus ib. 

Syria, Palaestina. — Boundaries, Mountains, Rivers ib. 

Divisions: Syria, Phoenicia, Palaestina or Judaea. 

Tribes 53 

Divisions: Galilee, Samaria, Judaea 54 

Peraea and Batansea, the Cities of Refuge, Seven 

Heathen Nations 55 

Arabia. — Boundaries ib. 

Mountains, Divisions, Tribes, &c .- 56 

Countries between Pontus Euxinus and Hyrcanum 
Mare. — Sarmatia Asiatica, Colchis or iEa, Iberia ib. 

Albania 57 

Armenia Propria vel Major. — Boundaries, Mountains, 

Rivers, Lake, Towns ib. 

Mesopotamia ib. 

River, Divisions, Towns 58 

Babylonia and Chaldaea. — Boundaries ib. 

Countries East of the Euphrates and Tigris: — 

Assyria, Media, Susiana or Susis 59 

Persia or Persis 60 



CONTENTS. IX 

Countries South of the Oxus: — 

Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Bactriana 60 

Carmania, Gedrosia 61 

Countries North of the Oxus: — 

Sogdiana, Scythia ib. 

India. — 

Boundaries, Rivers, Divisions, Towns, &c, Islands, &c. 62 

AFRICA. 

Boundaries, Bays, Strait, Rivers, Lakes 63 

iEgyptus. — Boundaries, Divisions, iEgyptus Inferior or 

Delta, Heptanomis 64 

iEgyptus Superior vel Thebais 65 

Northern Coasts of Africa. — Divisions ib. 

Libya, Tripolitana, Africa Propria 66 

Numidia, Mauritania, Islands 67 

MYTHOLOGY. 

The Twelve Olympian or National Deities of the 

Greeks and Romans 68-70 

Minor Deities 70-75 

Heroes, Mythical Persons, &c 75-84 

EARLY GRECIAN LEGENDS, Ac. 

The Argonautic Expedition 85 

Early Legends relating to Thebes 86 

Story of QEdipus and War of the Seven against Thebes 86, 87 

Early Kings of Troy 88 

Legend of the Trojan War 89, 91 

Grecian Heroes, &c, connected with the Trojan War 91- 94 
Trojan Heroes, &c 95-97 

GREEK ANTIQUITIES. 

Divisions of the Inhabitants of Attica and Sparta 98 
Magistrates: — 

Archons, their number, functions, &c 98, 99 

Inferior Magistrates 99 

Ephori ib. 

Assemblies. — The General Assembly, The Senate of the 
Five Hundred 100 

Gerousia, the Senate at Sparta 101 

Judges and Courts of Justice. — The Court of Areopagus ib. 

The Heliasts. The Digetetae. The Forty ib. 

Court of the Ephetee. Amphictyones 102 

Punishments. — Ostracism, Atimia, &c 102, 103 

Temples, Priests, and Sacrifices 103, 104 

Oracles. — Zeus at Dodona. Apollo at Delphi 104, 105 

Other Chief Oracles : of Zeus; of Apollo; of Heroes... 105 



X CONTENTS. 

Festivals. — Adonia, Anthesteria, Dionysia, Eleusima, 

&c 106-108 

Public Games. — Principal Exercises used in 108,109 

The Four National Games. Olympic Games 109 

Pythian Games. Nemean Games. Isthmian Games.... 110 
Military Affairs. — Divisions of the Army and Classes of 

Soldiers Ill 

Arms (defensive and offensive) ib. 

Officers. Minor Divisions of the Army 112 

Naval Affairs. — Ships of Burden; War Galleys; Principal 

parts of the vessel, &c. Tackling, &c 113 

Naval officers, &c 114 

Private Life of the Greeks.— Meals, Dress, Funerals 114-116 
The Greek Theatre 116,117 

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Divisions of the Inhabitants of the Roman Empire; 

Patricii, Plebei 118 

" Equites, Nobiles, Ignobiles, Optimates, Populares, 

Servi, &c 119 

The Senate. — Members, Proceedings, &c 119,120 

Assemblies. — Comitia Curiata, Comitia Centuriata 121 

Comitia Tributa 122 

Magistrates and Chief Public Officers: — 

JEdiles, Apparitores ib. 

Censores, Consules, Curatores 123 

Dictator, Prsefectus, Prsetor 124 

Pro-Consul, Procurator, Pro-Prsetor, Qusestores, Tri- 

buni 125, 126 

Judicial Proceedings, Punishments 126 

Priests. — Pontifices, Augures or Auspices 127 

Fetiales, Haruspices, Decemviri, Curiones, Rex Sacrifi- 

culus, Flamines, Virgines Vestales 128 

Salii, Luperci, Galli, Fratres Arvales 129 

Prayers, Sacrifices, Festivals 129, 130 

Games. — Ludi Circenses, Gladiatorii 131 

Classes of Gladiators, Scenic, or Stage Plays, Theatres 122 

Military Affairs. — Conscription and Period of Service, 

Pay, &c 133, 134 

Divisions of the Army ; Arms 134,135 

Officers: Legati, Tribuni, Centuriones ; Encampment... 135 

Order of Battle, Standards, Military Engines 136 

Military Rewards and Punishments, Triumph, Ova- 
tion 136, 137 

Naval Affairs 137 

Private Life of the Romans. —Dress 138,139 

Meals, &c 139, 140 



CONTENTS. XI 

Private Houses, Baths, Amusements 140, 141 

Funerals 142 

Names, and their abbreviations 143 



ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 

Poets. — Epic, Tragic 144 

Comic, Lyric 145 

Pastoral ...,.,. 146 

Prose Writers. — Historians 146,147 

Orators, Medical Writers 147, 148 

Mathematicians, Geographers, Fabulist 149 

Satiric Writer, Critic, Philosophers 150, 151 

ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 

Poets. —Epic 152 

Elegiac, Lyrio 153 

Tragic, Comic, Didactic. Satirists 154 

Epigrammatist, Fabulist 155 

Prose Writers. — Historians ib. 

Orator, &c 156 

Epistolary Writers. Writers on Philosophical Subjects, 

Natural History 157 

Agriculture, Architecture, Medicine, Grammar and 

Criticism 158 

SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. 

The Ionic School 159 

The Italic School ib. 

TOPOGRAPHY of ATHENS 160,161 

ROME 162-164 

GREEK and ROMAN DIVISION of TIME 165-167 

MISCELLANEA. 

Hills of Rome, Kings of Rome 168 

Twelve Caesars, Seven Wonders of the World, Seven Sages 

of Greece 169 

Twelve Labours of Hercules, Nine Muses, Three Graces 170 

Three Horse, Three Fates, Three Furies, Three Judges of 

Hell, Five Rivers of Hell 171 

The Winds 172 

ROMAN CALENDAR 172, 173 

GREEK CHRONOLOGY 174-180 

ROMAN CHRONOLOGY 181-187 

INDEX 189 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Cap. 


= Capital. 


L. 


= Lacus, Lake. 


Mts. 


= Mountains. 


Prom. 


= Promontorium. 


R. 


= River. 


G. 


= Gulf. 


0. T. 


= Old Testament 



(M> 



GEOGRAPHY. 



EUROPE. 

COUNTRIES. — II i span i a, Spain; Lusitania, Portugal; 
Gallia, France and West of Switzerland; Germania, 
Germany; Cimbrica Chersonesus, Denmark; Scan- 
dinavia, Norway and Sweden; Sarmatia Europaea, 
Russia and Poland; Rhsetia, East part of Switzerland and 
the Tyrol; Vindelicia, Bavaria S. of Danube; Panno- 
nia, Hungary; Illyricum, Illyris, Illyrica, Croatia, 
Dalmatia, and part of Turkey; Italia, Italy; Graecia, 
Greece, and part of Albania and Roumelia in Turkey ; 
Macedonia, Western part of Roumelia ; T h r a c 1 a, East- 
ern part of Roumelia; Mcesia, Servia and Bulgaria; 
Dacia, Transylvania, Wallacliia, and Moldavia, 

SEAS. — N. : Mare Pigrum, vel Cronium, Frozen Ocean ; 
Oceanus Germanicus, North Sea. W. : Atlanticum Mare, 
Atlantic. E.: Palus Mseotis, Sea of Azov; Pontus Euxinus, 
Black Sea; Propontis, Sea of Marmora; iEgeum Mare, 
Archipelago. S. : Mare Internum, Mediterranean ; Mare 
Ionium, W. of Greece ; ^Mare Inf erum, Tyrrhenum, vel 
Tuscum, Tuscan Sea, W. of Italy ; Mare Hadriaticum, vel 
Superum, Gulf of Venice. 

GULFS, STRAITS, &c — Sinus Codanus, vel Mare Sue- 
vicum, Baltic; Fretum Britannicum, vel Gallicum, 
Straits of Dover; Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Biscay ; 
Fretum Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar; Gallicus 
Sinus, Gulf of Lyons; Sinus Ligusticus, Gxdf of 
2 (13) 



14 GEOGRAPHY. 

Genoa; Tergestlnus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste; Fossa, 
Straits of Bonifacio ; Fretum Siculum, Straits of Mes- 
sina ; Hellespontus, Straits of the Dardanelles ; Bos- 
porus Thracius, vel Thracicus, Straits of Constanti- 
nople; Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaffa. 

RIVERS.— Flowing into the Baltic: Vistula, Vistula; Via- 
dus, Oder. Flowing into the North Sea: A Ibis, Elbe; 
Visurgis, Weser ; Scaldis, Scheldt; Rhenus, Rhine; 
Tamesis, Thames. Flowing into the Atlantic: Sequana, 
Seine; Liger, Loire; Garumna, Garonne; Durius, 
Douro ; Tagus, Tago ; Anas, Guadiana ; B set is, Guadal- 
quivir. Flowing into the Mediterranean : I b e r u s, Ebro ; 
Rhodanus, Rhone ; Arar, Saone; Arnus, Arno ; Tibe- 
ris, Tiber; Athesis, Adige ; Pad us, Po. Flowing into 
the Black Sea: Ister, Danube; Tyras, Dniester; Borys- 
thenes, Dnieper; Tanais, Don. Falling into the Caspian 
Sea: Rha, Volga. 

MOUNTAINS. — Sevo Mons, Dofrefield Mts.; Pyrensei 
Montes, Pyrenees; Alpes, The Alps; Apenninus 
Mons, Apennines ; Carpates vel Bastarnicee Montes, 
Carpathian Mis.; Hasmus Mons, Hozmus, or the Balkan; 
Hyperborei vel Rhipsei Montes, Ural Mts. 

LAKES. — Lacus L em an us, L. of Geneva; L. Brigan- 
tinus, Boden See, or L. of Constance; L. Verb an us, 
Lago Maggiore; L. Larius, Lago di Como; L. Benacus, 
Lago di Gar da; L. Copais, L. Topolias. 

ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic: Britannia vel Albion, Bri- 
tain; Hibernia, Ireland; Hebtides vel Ebtides, He- 
brides; Orcades, Orkneys; Thule, Iceland (?). In the 
Mediterranean: Pity usee Insulae; among these Ebusus, 
Ivica; Baleares Insulae (vel Gymnesiee), Balearis 
Major, Majorca; Balearis Minor, Minorca; Sardinia 
vel Sardo, Sardinia; Corsica vel Cyrnos, Corsica; 
iEthalia vel Ilva, Elba; Trinacrla vel Sicilia, Sicily; 
Me lit a, Malta. In the Ionian Sea: Corcyra, Corfu; 



GEOGRAPHY. 15 

Leucadia vel Leucas, Santa Maura; Ithaca, Thiaki; 
Cephallenia, Ceplialonia ; Zacynthus, Zante ; Cy- 
th era, Cerigo. In the iEgean Sea: Creta, Candia ; 
Cyclades, Cyclades; Euboea, Negropont. 



HISPANIA. 

Spain and Portugal. 

BOUNDARIES.— N.. Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Bis- 
cay, and Pyrensei Montes; E. and S.E., Mare Inter- 
num, Mediterranean; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic. 

MOUNTAINS.— N., -Pyre nee i Montes, Pyrenees; Mons 
I dub e da, Sierra D' Oca and Sierra Molina; Mons Her- 
minius, Sierra d' Estrella ; Marianus Mons, Sierra Mo- 
rena ; Orospeda Mons, Sierra Segura. 

RIVERS. — Falling into the Atlantic: Minius, Minho; Du- 
rius, Douro ; Tagus, Tagus ; Anas, Guadiana; B set is, 
Guadalquivir. Falling into the Mediterranean: Iberus, 
Ebro (which receives from the N. Cinga, Cinca, and Sicoris, 
Segre, and from the S. Salo, Xalon); Turia, Guadalaviar; 
Sucro, Xucar ; Tader, Segura. 

PROMONTORIES. — A rtabr urn Prom., Cape Finisterre; 
Magnum Prom., Cape La Roca; Sacrum Prom., C. St. 
Vincent; Junonis Prom., C. Trafalgar; Calpe, Rock 
of Gibraltar (which, with Abyla on the African coast, 
formed the Pillars of Hercules) ; Scombraria Prom., 
C. de Palos; Dianium Prom., C. La Nao; Prom. Pyre- 
nseum, Cape Creux. 

DIVISIONS. — Hispania Citerior or Hither, afterwards 
called Tarraconensis ; and Hispania Ulterior or 
Further, divided into Lusitania, Portugal, in the West, 
and Boetica, Andalusia, in the South. 

TRIBES. — In Tarraconensis: Callaici, Astures, Cantabri, 
Vaccaei, Vascones, Arevaci, Jacetani, Vessitani, Lacetani, 



16 GEOGRAPHY. 

Ilergetes, Cosetani, Arevaci, Carpetani, Celtiberi, Ede« 
tani, llercaones, Oretani, Contestani, Bastitani. In Lusi- 
tania: Lusitani, Vettones, Celtici. In Baetica: Turduli, 
Turdetani, Bastuli, Poeni. 

TARRACONENSIS. — Cities. — On the Ebro: Caesar Au- 
gusta, Saragossa. On the Salo: Bilbllis (the birth-plact 
of Martial). On the E. coast: Tarraco, Tarragona, th* 
Capital; Saguntum, Murviedro (its destruction by Han 
nibal, b.c. 219, gave rise to the second Punic war); Va 
lentia, Valencia. Near Scrombraria Prom., CapePalos: 
Carthago Nova, Carthagena (taken by Scipio Africanus 
b.c. 210). On the Tagus: Toletum, Toledo. Near the 
source of the Douro: Nuniantia (destroyed by Scipio the 
Younger, b.c. 133). At the mouth of the Douro: Calle, 
Oporto. 

LUSITANI A. — Cities. — Sal am an tic a, Salamanca, on a 
tributary of the Douro ; Norba Caesarea, Alcantara, on 
the Tagus ; 1 i s I p o, Lisbon, near the mouth of the river ; 
Emerita Augusta, Merida, on the Anas, Guadiana 
(colonized by Augustus with the veterans [Emeriti) of the 
fifth and tenth legions). 

BiETICA. — Cities. — Illiturgi, on the Bsetis (destroyed by 
Scipio, b.c. 210) ; below it, Cor dub a, Cordova, surnamed 
Patricia (the birth-place of the two Senecas and Lucan) ; 
Italic a, Sevilla la Vieja (the birth-place of the Emperors 
Trajan and Hadrian) ; Hispalis, Seville; Tartessus, on 
the coast; Gades, Cadiz, on a small island, one of the 
chief seats of commerce of the Phoenicians ; M u n d a, 
Monda, on the South coast (battle b. c. 45, Csesar defeated 
the sons of Pompey). 

ISLANDS. — In the Mediterranean: Pityusae Insula, 
comprising E bus us, Iviga, and Ophiusa; Baleares [or 
Gymnesiae) I n s u 1 oe, Balearic Isles, comprising M aj o r 
Insula or Majorca (Cap. Palma, Palma), and Minor In- 
sula, Minorca, Cap. Mago, Port Mahon. 



GEOGRAPHY. 17 

GALLIA. 

France, Belgium, and West of Switzerland. 

BOUNDARIES. — N. : Oceanus Britannic us, English 
Channel; F return Gallicurn, Straits of Dover; and 
Oceanus Germanicus, (?m»«?i Occaw. E. : Rhenus, 
Rhine, and Alpes, The Alps. S. : Mare Internum, 
Mediterranean, and Pyrenaei Monte s, Pyrenees. "W. : 
Atlanticum Mare, Atlantic. 

MOUNTAINS. — Pyrensei Monte s, Pyrenees; Alpes, 
Alps. 

RIVERS. — Falling into the North Sea and English Channel : 
Rhenus, Rhine (with its tributaries, Mosella, Moselle, 
and Mosa, Meuse) ; Scald is, Scheldt; Samara, Somme; 
Sequana, Seine (with its tributaries, Matron a, Marne, 
and Axona, Aisne, Isara, Oise). Falling into the Bay of 
Biscay: Liger, Loire (and its tributary, Elaver, Allier) ; 
Garumna, Garonne, with Duranius, Dordogne, and 
Aturus, Adour. Falling into the Mediterranean: Rho- 
danus, Rhone (with its tributaries, Arar, Saone, Isara, 
Isere, and Druentia, Durance). 

LAKE. — L. Lemanus, Lake of Geneva. 

DIVISIONS. — Gaul was originally divided among the 
BELG/E (between the Rhine and Seine) ; CELTiE (be- 
tween the Seine and Garonne) ; and AQUITANI (between 
the Garonne and the Pyrenees). About B.C. 120, Gaul 
was divided by the Romans into Provincia, or Gallia 
Braccata, and Gallia Comata; and again, B.C. 27, into, 

I. Provincia, or Gallia Narbonensis, in the S.E. ; 

II. Aquitania, in the S.W. ; III. Gallia Celtica, or 
Lugdunensis, in the N.W. ; IV. Gallia Belgica, in 
the N.E. 

NARBONENSIS, divided into Narbonensis Prima, Narbo- 
nensis Secunda, Viennensis, Alpes Maritimce, and Alpes 
2* 



18 GEOGRAPHY. 

Graice et Pennince. — Towns. — In Narbonensis Secunda and 
Viennensis: Massilia, Marseilles, on the coast (founded 
about b. c. 600, famous for its literature and commerce) ; 
Aquae Sextiae, Aix (Marius defeated the Teutoni, b.c. 
102); Telo Martius, Toulon, on the coast; E. of -which 
Forum Julii, Frejus (the birth-place of Agricola) ; Ge- 
neva, Geneva, on L. Lemanus ; Vienna, Vienne, on the 
Rhone (the chief town of the Allobroges) ; Cularo, Gre- 
noble; Valentia, Valence; Dea, Die; Arausio, Orange 
(a Roman colony) ; Avenio, Avignon; Arelate, Aries (a 
Roman colony, founded by the soldiers of the sixth Legion). 
In Narbonensis Prima: Nemausus, Nismes; on the coast, 
Agatha, Agde; Narbo Martius, Narbonne, the Capital 
of Gallia Narbonensis. On the Garonne : Tolosa, Toulouse 
(surnamed Palladia, a large and wealthy city). On the 
coast : R u s c i n o, near Perpignan. 

AQUITANIA, divided into Novempopidana, S. ; Aquitania 
Prima, E. ; Aquitania Secimda, W. 

Towns. — In Nbvempopulana: Climber r is, Audi. In 
Aquitania Prima: Albiga, AIM; on the Dordogne, Uxel- 
lodunum, Puecli oVIssola; near the Elaver, Allier, Ger- 
govia; West of this, Aug us tori turn, Limoges; in the 
N., Avaricum, Bourges. In Aquitania Secunda : on the 
Garonne, Burdigala, Bordeaux (the birth-place of Auso- 
nius) ; in the N., L i m o n u m, or Pictavi, Poitiers : M e d i o- 
lanum, or Santones, Saintes. 

LUGDUNENSIS, divided into Lugdunensis Prima, Secunda, 
Tertia, and Quarta. 

Towns. — In Lugdunensis Prima: Lugdunum, Lyons, 
the capital, at the junction of the Rhodanus and Arar, 
Saone (the birth-place of the Emperor Claudius) ; N. of 
this, Bibracte, or Augustodunum, Autun, and Alesia, 
Alise (destroyed by Caesar, b.c. 52). In Lugdunensis 
Quarta: on the Sequana, Seine, Augustobona, or Tri- 
c asses, Troyes ; Agendicum, Sens, the Capital of the 
Senones; and Lutetia, or Parisii, Paris; Genabum, Cen r 
bum, or Aureliani, Orleans, on the Liger, the Cap. of ' 



GEOGRAPHY. 19 

Oarnutes. In Lugdunensis Secunda: Rotomagus, Rouen. 
In Lugduncnsis Tertia : on the Loire, Csesarodunum, 
Tours, Cap. of the Turones; in the N.W., Brivates Por- 
tus, Brest. 

GALLIA BELGICA, divided into 1. Belgica Prima; 2. Bel- 
gica Secunda; 3. Germania Prima ; 4. Germania Secunda; 
5. Maxima Sequanorum. 

Towns. — On the Mosella: Tullum, Toul; Divodiirum, 
Metz; Augusta Treverorum, Treves. On the Matrona, 
Marne: Durocatalaunum, Chalons; N. of this Duro- 
cortorum, Rheims, the Cap. of the Remi. On the Axona, 
Aisne: Augusta Suessionum, Soissons. On the Sa- 
mara, Somme: Samarobriva or Ambiani, Amiens. On 
the coast: Gesoriacum or Bononia, Boulogne, and 
Itius Portus (from which Caesar set sail for Britain). 
On the Scaldis: Turnacum, Toumay. On the Rhine: 
Argentoratum, Strasburg (Julian defeated the Ale- 
manni, a.d. 357); Borbetomagus, Worms; and Mogon- 
tiacum, Alentz; at the junction of the Rhenus and Mo- 
sella, Confluentes, Coblentz. On the Rhenus: Colonia 
Agripplna, Cologne; Noviomagus, Nimeguen; Lug- 
dunum Batavorum, Leyden. On the Dubis, JDoubs : Ve- 
sontio, Besangon; S.E. of this Aventicum, Avenche. 

TRIBES. — In Narbonensis: Salyes or Saluvii, Allo- 
broges, Volcae Arecomici, Volcae Tectosages. In Aqui- 
tania: Bituriges Cubi, Lemovices, Arverni, Pictones, 
Santones, Bituriges Vivisci. In Gallia Lugdunensis: Am- 
barri, ^Edui, Lingones, Senones, Carnutes, Veneti, 
Osismii. In Gallia Belgica: Treveri, Mediomatrici, 
Leuci, Remi, Suessiones, Bellovici, Atrebates, Nervii, 
Morini, Helvetii (people of Switzerland), Sequani, 
Rauraci, Ubii, Tungri, Menapii, Batavi. 

ISLANDS.— On the W. Vindilis, Belleisle; Uxantis, TJshant; 
Caesarea, Jersey ; Sarnia, Guernsey ; Riduna, Alderney. 



20 GEOGRAPHY. 

GERMANIA. 

Germany and Prussia. 

BOUNDARIES. — K, Codanus Sinus and Mare Suevi. 
cum, Baltic, and Oceanus Germanicus; E., Vistula, 
R. Vistula, and Carpates Monte s, Carpathian Moun- 
tains; S., Danubius, R. Danube; W., Rhenus, R. Rhine. 

MOUNTAINS. — Hercynii Montes, all the mountains in 
the south and centre of Germany. In the centre : H e r- 
cynia Silva, an immense forest which took Csesar nine 
days to cross. 

ftl VERS. — Falling into the Baltic : Vistula, Vistula; and 
Viadrus, Oder (with its tributary Varta, Wartlia). Fall- 
ing into the German Ocean: Alb is, Elbe (and its tributary 
Sala, Saale); Visurgis, Weser; Am a si a, Ems; Rhenus, 
Rhine (with its tributaries Nicer, Neckar ; Moenus, Main; 
Lupia or Luppia, Lippc) ; Ister or Danubius, Danube. 

DIVISIONS. — 1. Vindeli or Suevi, N. of the Elbe to the 
Baltic; 2. Hermiones, N. of the Danube; 3. Istsevones, 
E. of the Rhine. 

TRIBES, &c. — Among the Vindeli or Suevi: Lemovii, Lon- 
gobardi, Burgundiones, Gothones, Semnones. Among 
the Hermiones : Cherusci, Catti, Hermunduri, Boii, 
Marcomanni. Among the Ista3vones : Frisii, Chauci 
(divided into Minores and Majores), Bructeri, Marsii, 
Sicambri, Tencteri, Mattiaci, Sedusii, Marcomanni, 
Alemanni, in the S. Decumates Agri, whose inhabit- 
ants paid a tithe of their produce to the Romans. 

N. of Germany: Saxones, Angli and Cimbri, inhabit- 
ing Cimbrica Chersonesus, Jutland; Hilleviones, Sui- 
ones, and Sitones, inhabiting Scandinavia or Scandia, 
Norway and Sweden. 

N. B. The Teutones, probably dwelt in the N. of Ger- 
many, on the coast of the Baltic. 



GEOGRAPHY. 21 



VINDELICIA, KHJETIA, NORICUM, PANNONIA, 
ILLYRICUM. 

Bavaria ; East of Switzerland, Tyrol ; Austria, South of the 
Danube; Hungary ; Illyria, Croatia, Dalmatia, and pari 
of Turkey. 

YlNDELICIA. 
Bavaria. 

BOUNDARIES. — N. and W., Danubius, R. Danube; E., 
R. iEnus, Inn; S., iEnus, Fl. Rhaetia, and Brigan- 
tinus Lacus, Lake of Constance. 

RIVERS. — Isarus, Iser; Lie us, Lech. 

TRIBES. — Brigantii, Genauni, Estiones. 

TOWNS. — Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg; Brigan- 
tia, Bregentz ; Reginum, Ratisbon. 

Rh^tia. 

East of Switzerland and the Tyrol. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Brigantinus Lacus, R. ^Enus, 
and Vindelicia; E., Noricum; S., Gallia Cisalpina; 
W., the Helvetii. 

RIVERS. — Rhenus, Rhine; iEnus, Inn; Addua, Adda; 
Ticinus, Ticino; A the sis, Adige (all these rise in 
Rhaetia). 

TRIBES. — Lepontii, Cap. Oscela; Sarunetes, Cap. Curia, 
Coire; Brenni, Vennones, Tridentini. 

Noricum. 

Austria, South of the Danube. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Danubius; E., Mons Cetius and 
Pannonia; S., Illyricum, R. Savus, Save t and Alpes 
Carnicae; W., Rhaetia and R. iEnua. 



22 GEOGRAPHY. 

RIVERS. — Juvavus, Salza ; Anisus, Enns ; Murus, 
Muhr ; Dravus, Brave (all these rise in Noricum). 

TOWNS. — Juvavum, Saltzburg ; Boio durum, near Pas- 
sau, on the Danube, and Lauriacum, the station of a 
Roman fleet; Noreia, NeumarJct, near the centre (battle 
B. c. 113, the Consul Carbo defeated by the Cimbri) ; S.E. 
Celeia, Cilly. 

Pannonia. 

Hungary, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Turkey. 

BOUNDARIES. — N. and E., Danubius PL; S., Illyri- 
cum; W., Noricum. 

RIVERS. — Arab on, Raab; Dravus, Drave; Savus, Save. 

LAKES. — Volcea Palus, Plaiten See; Peiso L., Neu- 
siedler See. 

DIVISIONS. — Pannonia Superior and Inferior. 

TOWNS. — On the Danube: Vindobona, Vienna; Car- 
nuntum (E. of Vienna); Acincum or Aquincum, 
Buda; Contra Acincum, Pestli; Pseto via, near Pettau, 
on the Drave; Mursa, Esseck, near the junction of the 
Drave and Danube. On the Save: Siscia, Sissek; and 
Sirmium. 

Illyricum. 

Illyria, Dalmatia, Croatia, and part of Turkey. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Noricum; E., Pannonia and Mo> 
sia; S.W., Mare Hadriaticum and Histria. 

MOUNTAIN. — Albius Mons. 

DIVISIONS. — N. 1. Liburnia (inhabited by the Liburni 
and Japydes) ; 2. Dalmatia. The Liburni were famed 
as bold and skilful sailors, their vessels were remarkable 
for their swiftness ; hence, vessels after their models were 
te>"*- ed Libumicoe, Naves. 



GEOGRAPHY. 23 

TOWNS. — iEmona, Laybach; Scar don a, Scardona, the 
Cap. of Liburnia ; Salona, Spalatro (the birth-place of 
Diocletian) ; Narona, on the Naro, Narenta ; S. of which 
Epidaurus, Old Ragusa; Scodra, Skutari, on Labeatis 
Palus, Lake of Skutari ; S. of this, Lissus, Alessio. 

ISLANDS. — W. of Illyricum: Scardona, Isola Grossa; 
Pharus, Lesina; Corcyra Nigra, Curzola; Melita, 
Melida. 



ITALIA. 

Hesperia, (Enotria, Ausonia, Saturnia. 
Italy. 

BOUNDARIES. — N. and N.W., Alpes, The Alps; E., Ha- 
driaticum Mare vel Superum, Adriatic Sea, or Gulf 
of Venice; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., 
Mare Tyrrhenum, Tuscum, vel Inferum, Tuscan Sea, 

GULES.— E., Tergestinus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste : S., Ta- 
rentinus Sinus, Gulf of Taranto ; Scylacius Sinus, 
Gidf of Squillace: W., Terinaeus Sinus, Gulf of St. 
Eufemia ; Laus Sinus, Gulf of Policastro ; Passtanus 
Sinus, Gulf of Salerno; Cumanus vel Puteolanus 
Sinus, Bay of Naples; Cajetanus Sinus, Gulf of 
Gaeta: S. of Liguria, Ligusticus Sinus, Gulf of Genoa. 

STRAIT. — Fretum Siculum, Straits of Messina. 

MOUNTAINS. — Alpes, The Alps, in the North, divided 
into three principal chains. 

I. The Western: Alpes Maritimae, Maritime Alps; Alpes 
Cottiaa, Mt. Cenis, and Mt. Genlvre ; Alpes Graiae, Alps of Sa- 
voy, including Little St. Bernard and Mt. Blanc. II. The Central 
Alps: Alpes Pennine?, Alps of Valais, including Great St. Ber- 
nard, Mt. Rosa, and St. Gothard ; Alpes Lepontiaa, Alps of the 
Grisons ; Alpes Rhseticae, Alps of Tyrol. III. The Eastern 
Alps: Alpes Noricae, Alps of Styria; Alpes Carnicse, Carnie 
Alps ; Alpes Juliae, Julian Alpe, 



24 GEOGRAPHY. 

Appenninus Mons, The Apennines, running the whole 
length of Italy. Principal Elevations: Mons Soracte, 
S. Oreste, in Etruria; Mons Sacer, in Sabinum; Mons 
Albanus, in Latium (on which the Ferise Latinse were 
celebrated); Algidus Mons, in Latium; Mons Massi- 
cus, in Campania, near the coast (famous for its wines) ; 
Vesuvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain (the first 
eruption occurred Aug. 24, a.d. 79, which destroyed Pom- 
peii and Herculaneum) ; Garganus, Mte. Gargano, in 
Apulia; and Mons Vultur. 

RIVERS. — In Gallia Cisalpina: Padus, or E rid anus, Po; 
it rises in Mons Vestilus, Monte Viso, flows east, and falls 
into the Adriatic. Chief tributary streams from the N. : 
Duria Major, Dora Baltea ; Ticinus, Ticino (Hannibal 
defeated P. C. Scipio, b.c. 218), from L. Verbanus, Lago 
Maggiore; Addua, Adda, from L. Larius, Lago di Gar da; 
and Mincius, Mincio, from L. Benacus, Lago di Garda. 
From the S. : Tanarus, Tanaro ; Trebia, Trebia (Han- 
nibal defeated the Romans, b.c. 218). Athesis, Adige, 
N. of the Po; Rubicon, Fiumicino, between Cisalpine 
Gaul and Umbria ; Metaurus, Metauro, in Umbria (Has- 
drubal defeated, b.c. 207); and Aufldus, Ofanto, in 
Apulia, all fall into the Adriatic. Running into the Tus- 
can Sea: Arnus, Arno, in Etruria; Tiber is, Tivere — it 
receives, on the left, Clanis, Chiano, and Cremera (300 
Fabii destroyed, b.c. 477); on the right, Tinia, Tinia, 
and its tributary Clitumnus, Clitumno ; N a r, Nera, and 
Vellnus, Velino, its tributary; Alii a (Gauls overcome 
the Romans, b.c 390) ; and Anio, Teverone. In the S. of 
Latium: Liris, Garigliano. In Campania: Vulturnus, 
Volturno; Silarus, Silaro (victory of Crassus, B.C. 71). 

LAKES. — In Cisalpine Gaul: L. Verbanus, Lago Mag- 
giore; L. Larius, Lago di Como ; L. Benacus, Lago di 
Garda. In Etruria: L. Trasimenus, Lago di Perugia 
(Hannibal's third victory, B.C. 217); L. Vulsiniensis, 
L, Bolsena. In Sabini: L. Fucinus, Lago di Celano. 



GEOGRAPHY. 25 

In Latium : L. Regillus, Lago di Regillo? (battle ■B.C. 
498); L. Albanus, Lago di Albano. In Campania: L. 
A vermis, Lago Averno, and L. Lucrlnus, famed for its 
oysters. 

CAPES. — In Etruria: Populonium Prom. In Latium: 
Circeium Prom., Monte Circello. In Campania: Mise- 
num Prom., Cape Miseno., and Minervse Prom., Cape 
CampaneUa. In Lucania : PalinurumProm., Cape Pa- 
linuro. In Apulia: Garganum Prom., Cape Gargano; 
Iapygium vel Salentinum Prom., Cape Leuca. In 
Bruttii: Lacinium Prom., Cape Colonne ; Herculeum 
Prom., Cape Spartivento ; Leucopetra "Prom., Cape 
Armi. 

DIVISIONS. — North: I. Liguria; II. Gallia Cisal- 
pina, vel Togata; III. Venetia, Carni, and Histria. 
Middle: IV. Etruria, vel Tuscia; V. Umbria; VI. 
Picenum; VII. Sabinum; VIII. Latium; IX. Sam- 
nium; X.Campania. South: XI. Apulia; XII. Lu- 
cania; XIII. Bruttii. 

LIGURIA.- — Nice, Genoa, and part of Piedmont. — Boundaries: 
N., R. Padus, Po, and Gallia Cisalpina; E., Gallia Cisal- 
pina ; S., Sinus Ligusticus, Gulf of Genoa ; W., Alpes 
Maritimse and Gallia. 

Cities. — Genua, Genoa, at the N. of the Gulf of Genoa; 
Pollentia, Polenza, on the Tanarus. 

Tribes. — N. of Apennines: Vagienni, Statielli, Fri- 
niates, Montani, Ligures. South: Intemelii, In- 
gauni, Apuani. 

GALLIA CISALPINA, vel TOGATA. — Part of the king- 
dom of Sardinia, Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and part, of 
States of the Church. 

Divisions.— I. GALLIA CISPADANA, inhabited by the 
Boii and Lingones. 

Cities: Placentia, Placenza, near the junction of the 
Po and Trebia., (founded by Romans, 219 B.C.) ; Mutina, 
Modena (M. Antony defeated, b.c. 43); Ravenna, Ra- 
venna; Bononia, Bologna. 
3 



26 GEOGRAPHY. 

II. GALLIA TRANSPADANA, inhabited by the Tau- 
rini, Salassi, Instibres, Cenomani. 

Cities: Augusta Taurinorum, Turin, on the Padus ; 
Vercella, Vercelli, near which Raudi Campi, (where Ma- 
rius defeated the Cimbri, B.C. 101) ; Ticinum, Pavia, on 
the Ticinus ; Mediolanum, Milan, the capital of the In- 
stibres; Co mum, Como, on L. Larius ; Cremona, Cre- 
mona, on the Po, (founded by Romans, B.C. 219) ; Mantua, 
Mantua, on the Mincius, (near which Virgil was born, 
B.C. 70). 

VENETIA, CARNI, et HISTRIA. — Eastern part of Vene- 
tian Lombdrdy and Istria. 

Boundaries. — N. and N.E., Alpes Carnicae, vel Juliae, 
and Rhaetia ; E., Liburnia ; S., Mare Hadriaticum and R. 
Padus ; W., R. Athesis, Adige, and Gallia Transpadana. 

Cities. — Verona, Verona, on the Athesis; E. of Verona, 
Patavium, Padua, (Livy born, B.C. 59); Aquileia, 
Aquileia, near the coast, (destroyed by Attila, king of the 
Huns, a.d. 452) ; E. of Aquileia, Tergeste, Trieste. 

ETRURIA, TUSCIA, vel TYRRIIENIA. — Tuscanij, and 
part of States of the Church. 

Boundaries. — N., R. Macra, Magra, and Apenninus 
Mons ; E. and S., R. Tiber ; W., Tuscum Mare. 

Cities. — P i s ae, Pisa, and Florentia, Florence, both on 
the Arnus. Luc a, Lucca, on the Auser, Serchio. Fae- 
sulae, Fiesole ; Pis tori a, Pistoia, (Catiline defeated, B.C. 
62); Portus Herculis, Labronis, vel Liburni, Leg- 
horn; on the coast. Populonium, or ia, the chief sea- 
port of Etruria. CentumCellae, Civita Vecchia; on the 
coast, with a fine harbour. 

The following were probably the twelve confederate cities 
of Etruria Proper. 

V o 1 a t e r r ae, Volaterra. V e tu 1 o n i i, to the E. of Popu- 
lonia. Rusellae, on the Umbro. Tarquinii, Corneto. 
Agylla, or Caere, Cerveteri, (where the Vestal Virgins 
took refuge on the destruction of Rome by the Gauls, b. c. 
390). Veii, Isola, on the Cremera, twelve miles from 



GEOGRAPHY. 27 

Rome, (the most powerful city of Etruria). Falerii, or 
lum, (taken by Camillas, b.c. 394), near Mt. Soracte. 
Vulsinii, Bolsena, on L. Volsiniensis, (the birth-place of 
Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius). Clusium, Chiusi, 
near the Clanis, (the residence of Porsena). Perusia, 
Perugia, E. of Clusium, on the Tiber. Cortona, Cortona, 
N.W. of Trasimene Lake. Arretium, Arezzo, (the birth- 
place of Mascenas). 

UMBRIA. — States of the Church. 

Boundaries. — N., Gallia Cispadana; E., Mare Hadriati- 
cum and Picenum ; S., Sabini ; W., R. Tiber. It was in- 
habited in the N. by Galli Senones. 

Cities. — Ariminum, Rimini ; Sena Gallic a, Senir 
gaglia, on the coast; in the interior, Sentinum, (battle, 
B.C. 294, Samnites defeated); Spoletium, or Spoletum, 
Spoleto, in the South. 

PICENUM. — Part of States of the Church. 

Bomidaries. — N., R. iEsis, Esino ; E., Mare Hadriati- 
cum ; S., Vestini, in Sabinum ; W., Umbria and Sabini. 

Cities. — Ancona, Ancona, in the N. ; Asctilum Pice- 
num, Ascoli, (taken, b.c. 89, in the Marsic or Social 
War). 

Tribe. — Praetutii, in the South. 

SABINUM. — Part of States of the Church, and part of 
Naples. 

Boundaries. — N., Umbria and R. Nar ; E., Apenninus 
Mons and Hadriaticum Mare ; S., Samnium ; W., Latium 
and R. Tiber. 

Cities. — Re ate, Rieti, in the W. ; Cures, Correse, (the 
native city of Numa, and capital of the Sabines) ; Fidenae, 
Castel Giubileo, and Crustumerium, between the Anio 
and Tiber; Amiternum, in the E., on the borders of the 
Vestini, (Sallust born, b.c. 86); Alba Fucentia, Alba, 
N. of L. Fucinus ; Marruvium, chief city of the Marsi ; 
Sulmo, Sulmona, in the country of the Peligni, (Ovid 
born, b.c 43) ; Corflnium, the chief city of the Peligni. 



28 GEOGRAPHY. 

Tribes. — iEqui, Marsi, Peligni, Marruciiii, Ves» 
tini. 

LATIUM. — States of the Church. 

Boundaries. — N., R. Tiber and Anioj E., Sainnium and 
Campania ; S. and W., Mare Tuscum. 

Cities. — 'Roma, Borne, on the Tiber, (founded by Ro- 
mulus, b. c. 753, on the Palatine Mount) ; built on seven 
hills, Palatinus, Capitolinus, Quirinalis, Vimina* 
lis, Esquilinus, Cselius, and Aventinus, to which 
were afterwards added Janiculum, Vatieanus, and 
Collis Hortulorum (Public Buildings, &c, vide Topo- 
graphy). Ostia, Ostiaj at the mouth of the Tiber. Lau- 
ren turn, on the coast. Lavinium, built by JEneas. 
Ardea, the city of Turnus. Antium, Porto d'Anzo, on 
the coast. Tibur, Tivoli, on the Anio, (a favourite resi- 
dence of the Roman nobles). S. of this Gabii. Tuscu- 
lum, near Frascati, surrounded by numerous villas. Alba 
Long a, on the border of L. Albanus, founded by Ascanius 
(a legend). Praeneste, Palestrina. Velitrae, Velletri, 
(the native city of the Octavian family). Corioli, (which 
gave to C. Marcius the surname Coriolanus). Aqulnum, 
Aquino, (birth-place of Juvenal). Anagnia, Anagni, the 
capital of the Hernici. Eastward: Arpinum, Arpino, 
(birth-place of Cicero and Marius) ; Anxur, or Tarra- 
cina, Terracina; Suessa Pometia, (stormed by Tarq. 
Superbus). Cajeta, Gaeta; Formiae, Mola, (famous for 
its wine) ; and Minturnse ; on the coast. 

Tribes. — Latlni, iEqui, Hernici, Rutiili, Volsci. 

SAMNIUM. — Part of Naples. 

Boundaries. — N., Sabinum and Mare Hadriaticum; E., 
Apulia; S., Campania and Lucania; W., Campania and 
Sabinum. 

Cities. — Beneventum, Benevento, (Pyrrhus defeated, 
B.C. 275). S.W. of Beneventum : Caudium, near which 
the pass called Furculae Caudinae, or Caudine Forks 
(where the Roman army, overcome by the Samnites, 



GEOGRAPHY. 29 

passed under the yoke, b.c. 321); Bovilnum, Bojano, 
(chief city of the Pentri). 

Tribes— -N., Frentani; Middle, Pentri; S., Hirpini. 

CAMPANIA. — Part of Naples. 

Boundaries. — N., Latium and R. Liris; E., Samnium ; 
S., R. Silarus ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare. 

Cities. — On the coast : C u m se, the most ancient Greek 
colony in Italy; Baise, (famed for its baths) ; Misenum, 
the principal station of the Roman fleet in the Tyrrhene 
Sea; Ptitedli, or Dicsearchia, Pozzuoli ; Neapolis, 
Naples, founded on the site of the ancient Parthenope ; 
Herculaneum (over which stand Portici and Besina), 
Pompeii, and Stabise, (destroyed, a.d. 79, by an eruption 
of Vesuvius) ; Salernum, Salerno. In the Interior: Ve- 
nafrum, Venafro, (noted for its olives); Capua, Capua, 
(which espoused the cause of Hannibal, and, when taken 
by the Romans, b. c. 211, suffered the vengeance of the 
conquerors); Nola, Nola, (here Augustus died, a.d. 14). 
In the N. : Mons Massicus and Falernus Ager, both 
noted for wine (Massic and Falernian). 

Tribes. — N., Aurunci; S., Picentini. 

APULIA. — Part of Naples. 

Boundaries. — N. and E., Mare Hadriaticum ; S., Taren- 
tinus Sinus ; W., R. Bradanus, Brandano, and Samnium. 

Divisions. — Daunia, Peucetia, Messapia or Iapy- 
gia, Calabria. 

Cities. — Luceria, Lucera, (noted in the Samnite wars); 
Argyrlpa or Arpi, Arpi. On the Aufldus: Canusium, 
Canosa, and Cannae, Canne, (battle, B.C. 216, Romans 
defeated by Hannibal) ; Asculum Aptilum (Romans 
defeated by Pyrrhus, b.c. 279); Ventisia, Venosa, (the 
birth-place of Horace, b.c 65). In Calabria: Brundti- 
sium, Brindisi, (the usual port of embarcation for Greece) ; 
Hydruntum or Hydrus, Otranto; Tarentum or Taras, 
Taranto, (a flourishing and opulent city). 

Tribes. — Pediculi, Salentini. 
3* 



80 GEOGRAPHY. 

LUCANIA. — Part of Naples. 

Boundaries. — N., Campania, Samnium and Apulia ; E., 
Tarentinus Sinus ; S., Bruttii and R. Laus ; W., Tyrrhenum 
Mare. 

Cities. — In the E. : Metapontum; Heraelea, on the 
Aciris; Sybaris (proverbial for the luxury of its inhabit- 
ants) ; Thurii, (founded by the Athenians, B.C. 443, with 
whom were Herodotus, and Lysias the orator). In the 
"W., also on the coast: Psestum, vel Posidonia, (noted 
for its roses) ; Elea, Helia, or Veil a, (the birth-place of 
Zeno and Parmenides, the founders of the Eleatic School 
of Philosophy). In the Interior: to the E., Pandosia; 
Potentia, Potenza. 

BRUTTIUM.— Part of Naples. 

Boundaries. — 1$., Lucania; E., Ionium Mare; S., Mare 
Siculum ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare. 

Cities. — On the East: Croton, Cotrone, (the residence 
of Pythagoras, who here founded his school, and of Milo, 
the most famous athlete of antiquity) ; Scylacium, Squil- 
lace; Locri Epizephyrii, (the city of Zaleucus, the law- 
giver). On the West: Consentia, Cosenza, the Capital; 
Temesa or Tempsa. On the coast further South: Rhe- 
gium, Beggio, N. of Rhegium, the Rock Scylla, opposite 
toCharybdison the Sicilian coast. 

Islands. 

SICILIA or TRINACRIA, Sicily, (inhabitants the Sicani) 
Mountain. — ^Etna, Monte Gibello. Rivers. — Symaethus, 
Giaretta, in the E. ; Himera, Salso, in the S. Capes. — 
Pelorum Prom., Cape Faro; Pachynum Prom., Cape Pas- 
saro; Lilybseum Prom., Cape Boeo. Cities. — E. Messana, 
Messina; Tauromenium, Taormina; Cat an a, Catania; 
Syracuse, Syracuse or Siragossa, consisting of five towns, 
1. Ortygia, (or Nasos, the Island), 2. Achradina, 3. 
Tyche, 4. Neapolis, and 5. the superb Epipolae: in 
the S. A grig en turn, Girgenti, (famed for its temple of 
Zeus Olympius); Selinus, ruins : in the W. Lilybaeum, 



GEOGRAPHY. 31 

Marsala; Drepanum, Trapani: in the N. Segeste or 
^E g e s t a, near Alcamo ; Panormus, Palermo. Himera, 
(battle, b.c. 480): in the centre Henna or Enna, Castro 
Giovanni, (from which Pluto carried off Proserpine). 

North from Sicily, iEoliae vel Vulcanise Insulae. 
Lipari Islands, the largest of which Lipara; Strongvle. 
Stromboli: W. iEgates Insulae, (battle, b.c. 241, Car- 
thaginians defeated): S. Cossyra, Pantelearia ; Mel it a. 
Malta; G a u 1 u s, Gozzo. W. of Etruria : IlvaveliEthalia. 
Elba, (famed for its iron-mines); Corsica. Corsica. ChieJ 
Towns. — Mariana, and Alalia or Aleria. a Roman colony 
S. of Corsica: Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia, Cap. Ca 
ralis, Cagliari, in the S. 



MCESIA. 

Servia and Bulgaria. 

BOUNDARIES.— N., R. Danubius or Ister; E., Pontus Eux 
inus, Black Sea ; S. f Haemus Mons ; W., Illyricum and R 
Drinus, Drino. 

DIVISIONS. — W., Moesia Superior, including Dacie 
Aureliani; E., Moesia Inferior, including Scythip 
Parva. 

TRIBES. — M oe si, Scordisci, Dardani, Triballi. 

RIVERS. — Drinus, Drino; Margus, Morava; (Escus, 
Isker ; Iatr us, Iantro ; all tributaries of the Danube. 

TOWNS. — In Moesia Superior: Singidunum, Belgrade, 
Margus, near the Margus; Naissus, Nissa, on the Mar- 
gus. In Moesia Inferior: Sardica on the (Escus, S.E. of 
which Tauresium, (the birth-place of Justinian). On 
the Danube: Nicopolis, Nicopoli, built by Trajan. On 
the borders of the Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea: Tomi, (to 
which Ovid was banished by Augustus), to the South of 
this Odessus, Odessa, W. of which Marcianopolis, 
founded by Trajan. 



*2 GEOGRAPHY. 

DACIA. 

Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia. 

BOUND ARIES.— N., Mons Carpates vel Bastarnicae, and R. 
Tyras, Dniester; E., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and Sar- 
matia ; S., R. Danubius ; W., R. Tibiscus, Theiss. 

RIVERS. — Tibiscus, Theiss; Aluta, Aluta; Ardiscus, 
Argish; Ararus, Sereth ; Porata or Hierasus, Pruth; 
all falling into the Danube. 

TRIBES. — Getae vel Daci, (chief city Sarmizegethusa 
or Ulpia Trajana) ; Jazyges, in the West. 



SARMATIA. 

Part of European Russia. 

BOUNDARIES.— E., R. Tanais, Don; S., Palus Maeotis, Sea 
of Azov, and Pontus Euxinus; W., R. Tyras, Dniester. 

TRIBES. — Bastarnae, Jazyges, Roxolani, Hamaxobii, Alani, 
Venedi, &c. &c. 

TOWNS, &c. — Olb i a, near the junction of the Borysthenes, 
Dnieper, and Hypanis. S. of Sarmatia: Chersonesus 
T auric a, Crimea; on the W. coast of which* Cherso- 
nesus; on Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaffa, 
Panticapaeum, Kertsch, the residence of the Greek kings 
of the Bosporus. 



MACEDONIA. 

Part of the Roumelia in Turkey. 

BOUNDARIES.— N., Mcesia; E., Thracia; S., Mare ^Egeum 
and Thessalia ; W., Illyris Graeca, included in Macedonia 
under the Romans. 



G E G R A I- II Y . 33 

GULFS. — S. Thermalcus Sinus, Gulf of Salo?iiki ; Toro- 
naicus Sinus, Gulf of Cassandra ; Singitlcus Sinus, 
Gulf of Monte Santo; Strymonicus Sinus, Gulf of 
Contessa. 

MOUNTAINS. — N., Mons Orbelus, Scardus Mons, 
separating Macedonia from Mcesia; S.W. of the Penin 
sula Acte, Mons Athos, Monte Santo. 

RIVERS. — Strymon, Struma or Carassou, flowing into 
Strymonic Gulf; Axius, Vardari (with its tributary Eri- 
gon), and Haliacmon, Vistriza, flowing into the Ther- 
maic Gulf. 

DIVISIONS. — S., Pieria, Elymiotis, ^Emathia, Chal- 
cidice, with the Peninsulas Pallene, Sithonia, and 
Acte; E., Mygdonia and Sintica. In the centre: 
Pelagonia; N., Pseonia; W., Lyncestae and Eordaea. 

CITIES. — Pydna, Kitron, near the Haliacmon, (battle, b.c. 
168 ; iEmilius Paulus routs Perseus, the last king of Mace- 
donia) ; Pel la, Alaklisi, the Capital; Thessalonica or 
Thermia, Saloniki, on the Thermaic Gulf; Potidaea, 
Pinaka, on the Isthmus of Pallene; Olynthus, ruins, on 
the Toronaic Gulf, (destroyed by Philip II., b.c. 347); 
Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Strymon, (taken from 
the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War by Brasidas, 
B.C. 424) ; Eastward Philippi, Philippi, (battle, b.c 42; 
Brutus and Cassius defeated and slain by Antony and 
Octavianus). 

The tract of country called ILLYRIS GR^ECA (bounded N. 
by Drinus, R. DHno ; E., Macedonia; S., Epirus; 
"W., Hadriaticum Mare); inhabited by various tribes 
of Illyrian origin, was incorporated with the Roman pro- 
vince of Macedonia. Chief Towns. — On the coast : E p i» 
damnus vel Dyrrachium, Durazzo, (the usual landing- 
place for persons who crossed over from Brundusium, in 
Italy). Inland: Apollonia, (celebrated as a place of 
commerce and learning ; here Augustus for some time 
studied literature and philosophy). 



34 GEOGRAPHY. 

THRACIA. 

Roumelia. 

BOUNDARIES.— N., Haemus Mons and Moesia; E., Pontus 
Euxinus and Bosporus Thracius ; S., Propontis, Helles- 
pontus and iEgeum Mare ; W., Macedonia. 

WATERS OF THRACE. — Hellespontus, Dardanelles; 
Propontis, Sea of Marmora ; Pontus Euxinus, Black 
Sea; Bosporus Thracius, Straits of Constantinople; 
Melas or Melanes Sinus, Ghilf of Saros. 

MOUNTAINS. — N., Hsemus, Balkan; W., Pangseus, 
Pangea, east of which Rhodope, sacred to Bacchus. 

RIVERS. — In the W. Nestus, Nesto, rising in the N.W. 
and flowing S. into the iEgean Sea; Hebrus, Maritza. 

CITIES. — Abdera, at the mouth of the Nestus, (the birth- 
place of Democritus) ; Adrianopolis, Adrianople, on the 
Hebrus ; Chersonesus, in the S. between the Gulf of Saros 
and the Hellespont, (colonized by Athenians under Mil- 
tiades) ; Lysimachia, Eksemil, at the Isthmus; S. of 
this Sestos, (between which and Abydos, Xerxes formed 
a bridge of boats) ; iEgos Potamos, (near which Lysan- 
der defeated the Athenian fleet, b.c. 405); Byzantium, 
Constantinople, on the Thracian Bosporus, (made the 
Capital of the Roman empire under Constantine, a.d. 330). 



GRiECIA — HELLAS. 

Greece. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Macedonia and Illyria; E., 
JEgeum Mare, Arcliipelago, and Myrtoum Mare; S., 
Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., Ionium Mare, 
Ionian Sea. 



GEOGRAPHY. 35 

GULFS. — E., Therm aicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; Pa- 
gasaeus Sinus, Gulf of Volo; Maliacus Sinus, Gulf 
of Zeitoun; Saronicus Sinus, Gulf of JEgina ; Argo- 
licus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. S., Laconlcus Sinus, 
Gulf of ColokytJiia ; Messeniacus Sinus, GulfofKoron. 
W., Cyparissius Sinus, Gulf of Arcadia ; N. of Achaia 
and Corinthia, Sinus Corinthiacus, Gulf of Lepanto ; 
S. of Locris, Crissaeus Sinus, Bay of Salona; S. of 
Eplrus, Ambracius Sinus, Gulf of Arta. 

STRAIT. — Eurlpus, Cliannel of Negropont, between Boeotia 
and Euboea. 

MOUNTAINS. — In Thessalia: N., Cambunii Montes, 
Bolutza Mts.; W., Olympus, Elymbo ; Ossa, Kissovo ; 
Pelion, Plesnia; S., Othrys, Othrys; W., Pindus, 
Pindus. 

In Epirus : N.W., Acroceraunii vel Ceraunii 
Montes, Chimera. 

In Phocis: N., (Eta Mons, Katavothra; W., Parnas- 
sus, Lyakouri. 

In Bosotia: S.W., Helicon, Zagora, (a haunt of the 
Muses). On the borders of Attica and Megaris, Cithae- 
ron, Cithairon. 

In Attica: N., Parnes Montes, Nozia; N.E., Pen- 
telicus, Pentele, (celebrated for its marble); S. E. of 
Athens, Hymettus, Telovuni; at the S. extremity of 
Attica, Laurium, (famed for its silver-mines). 

On the Borders of Achaia: Cyllene, Zyria, (Mercury 
born). 

In Laconia : Taygetus, "West of the Eurotas. 

In Arcadia: in the S.W., Lycaeus Mons; in N."W., 
Erymanthus, (here Hercules slew the wild boar); to 
wards the S., Maenalus, Roino ; Parnon, Malevo. 

RIVERS. — In Thessalia: 1. Pen e us, Salambria, from Mt. 
Pindus, flowing through the lovely vale of Tempe, falls into 
the Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; it receives on the 



36 GEOGRAPHY. 

North the Titaresius, on the South the Enipeus and 
Apidanus. 2. Spercheus, JEllada, from the West, falls 
into Sinus Maliacus, Bay of Zeitoun. 

In Epirus: 1. Aracthus, Arta, from the N., falls into 
Sinus Ambracius, Gulf of Arta. 2. Acheron, and its 
tributary Cocytus, fall into the Glykys Portus or Har- 
bour. Northward, Thy am is, Kalamas, falls into the 
Ionian Sea, opposite to Corcyra, Corfu. 

In Ac arn ani a : A c h e 1 o u s, Aspro Potamo, from Mt. 
Pindus, flows southward, divides iEtolia from Acarnania, 
and falls into the Gulf of Patras. 

In iETOLiA: Evenus, Fidhari, from Mt. (Eta, falls into 
the Gulf of Patras. 

In Doris: Cephisus Major, Mavsronero, flows through 
Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into Copais L., Lake Topo- 
lias. 

In Bosotia: Asopus, Asopo, falls into the sea opposite 
to Eubcea, the island Negropont. Ismenus, into which 
the brook Dirce flows, falls into L. Hylica. Permessus 
and Hippocrene, or "fountain of the horse," falls into 
Copais L. 

In Attica: Cephisus Minor, from Mons Pentelieus, 
and Ilissus, from Mons Hymettus, flow South into Saro- 
nicus Sinus. 

In Achaia : Crathis, Grata, (into which the Styx 
flows), and Selinus, Vostitza, fall into the Corinthian 
Gulf. Pirus, Kamenitza, falls into the Gulf of Patras. 

In Elis: Peneus, Waco, from Mons Erymanthus, falls 
into Ionium Mare. Alpheus, Rouphia, rising in Arcadia, 
and receiving from the North the La don and Helisson, 
falls into the Ionian Sea. 

In Messenia: Pamisus, Pirnatza, from Mt. Lycaeus, 
and Neda, Buzi, between Elis and Messenia, fall into the 
Ionian Sea. 

In Laconia : Eurotas, Basilipotamo, from the N., falls 
into Laconicus Sinus, Gidf of Kolokytliia. 

In Argolis : Inachus, Banitza, falls into Argolicus 
Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. 



GEOGRAPHY. 37 

JJAKES. — Copais L., Lake Topolias, in Boeotia, (famed for 
its eels, and subterranean communication with the Euboean 
Sea) ; Acherusia L., in the S.W. of Epirus ; L. Tricho- 
nis, in iEtolia; L. Baebeis, in the East of Thessaly; L. 
Stymphalis, in the North of Arcadia. 

PROMONTORIES. — S.E. of Thessalia, Magnesiae Prom., 
Cape St. George; S.E. of Attica, Sunium Prom., Cape 
Colonna; S.E. of Argolis, Scyllagum Prom., Cape Skillo; 
S.E. of Laconia, Malea Prom., Cape Maleo or St. Angelo; 
S.W. of Laconia, Taenarum Prom., Cftpe Matapan; S.W.. 
of Messenia, Acritas Prom., Cape Gallo ; N.W. of Elis, 
Chelonatas Prom., Cape Tornese; N.W. of Achaia, 
Araxus Prom., Cape Kologria ; N. of Achaia, Chium 
Prom., Castello di Morea, opposite to this in the S. of 
iEtolia, Anti-Rhium Prom., Castello Rumeli; N.W. of 
Acarnania, at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, Ac- 
tium Prom., La Punta, (battle, B.C. 31, Augustus defeats 
Antony and Cleopatra.) 

DIVISIONS. — Northern Greece.— 1. Thessalia; 2. Epi- 
rus. Central Greece. — 1. Acarnania; 2. iEtolia; 3. 
Doris; 4. Locris; 5. Phocis; 6. Boeotia; 7. Attica; 
8. Me gar is. Southern Greece or Peloponnesus, Morea. 
— 1. Achaia; 2. Elis; 3. Messenia; 4. Laconia; 5. 
Argolis; 6. Arcadia; 7. Sicyonia; 8. Corinthia. 

THESSALIA. — Boundaries. — ^., Macedonia; E., ^Egeum 
Mare ; S., Phocis, Doris, iEtolia ; W., Epirus. 

Divisions. — N., Pelasgiotis; E., Magnesia; S.E., 
Phthiotis; S., iEnianes; S.W., Dolopia; N.W., Hes- 
tiaeotis; in the Centre, Thessaliotis. 

Cities. — Larissa, Larza, the Capital, on the Peneus. 
Pharsalus, Pliarsa, (battle, B.C. 48, Caesar defeated Pom- 
pey). Cynocephalae, (battle, b.c. 197, Philip defeated 
by Cons. Flaminius). Anticyra, at the mouth of the 
Spercheus. Pherse, Valestino ; noted for its tyrants. 
Lamia, Zeitoun; near the mouth of the Spercheus, (war 
between Antipater and the Athenians, B.C. 323). Iolcos, 
4 



88 GEOGRAPHY. 

N. of the Pagasasus Sinus, (the city of Pelias and Jason, 
from which the Argonauts sailed in quest of the Golden 
Fleece). 

EPIRUS. — Boundaries. — N., Illyria; E., Macedonia and 
Thessalia ; S., Acarnania ; W., Ionium Mare. 

Divisions. — N.W., Chaonia; S.E., Molossis; S.W., 
Thesprotia. 

Cities. — Ambracia, Arta, (the residence of Pyrrhus), 
on the Aracthus. Nicopolis (built by Augustus, in me- 
mory of his viotery at Actium). Dodona, on the borders 
of Molossis and Thesprotia, (famed for its oracle of Zeus, 
the most ancient in Greece). 

ACARNANIA. — Boundaries. — N., Ambracius Sinus and 
Epirus ; E., River Achelous ; W., Ionium Mare. 

Cities. — Stratus, on the Achelous, the Capital. Ac- 
tium, on a promontory of the same name, (near which 
Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval en- 
gagement, B.C. 31). 

iETOLIA. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia and Epirus; E., 
Doris and Locris ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., R. Achelous. 
Cities. — Therma vel Thermum, the place of meeting 
of the iEtolian league. Calydon, the city of Tydeus and 
Diomedes, (in the vicinity of this city the celebrated Caly- 
donian hunt took place). 

DORIS. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia; E., Phocis; S., Locris; 
W., ^Etolia. 

Cities. — Four small cities which gave the name of Te- 
trapolis to the country, Erineus, Boium, Pindus, 
Cytinium. 

LOCRIS was divided into two districts, inhabited by three 
tribes. 

DISTRICT I.— Boundaries.— N., Doris; E., Phocis; S., 
Sinus Corinthiacus; W., iEtolia. Inhabited by OZOLIAN 
LOCRIANS. Chief Cities. — Amp hiss a, Salona; Nau- 
p act us, Lepanto. 



GEOGRAPHY. 39 

DISTRICT II.— Boundaries.— N., Thessaly ; E., Euboean 
Sea and Malian Gulf; S., Phocis ; W., Doris and Phocis. 
Inhabited S. by OPUNTIAN LOCRIANS. City: Opus, 
Talanda. Inhabited N. by EPICNEMIDIAN LOCRIANS 
as far as Thermopylae, (a celebrated pass, where Leo- 
nidas and 300 Spartans fell, after a gallant defence against 
the mighty army of Xerxes, b.c. 480). Cities: Phronium, 
JZomani, Nlcaea, and Scar phi a. 

PHOOIS. — Boundaries. — N., Locri Epicnemidii and Doris; 
E., Tioeutia ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., Locris. 

Citito. — Delphi, or Pytho, Castri, on the western de- 
clivity oi Mt. Parnassus, between its two peaks, (famed 
for the "infallible" oracle of Apollo, and celebrated as 
the place of meeting of the Amphictyons, and of the cele- 
bration of the Pythian games) ; Crissa, or Crisa, S.W. 
of Delphi; Eiatea, ElepMa, N. of the Cephissus ; Anti- 
cyra, Aspra Spitia, in the South, on the coast, (famed for 
its hellebore, the cure for madness among the ancients). 

BCEOTIA. — Boundaries. — N. and E., Euboicum Mare; S., 
Mountain-chain of Parnes and Cithseron, separating Boeotia 
from Attica ; W., Phocis. 

Cities. — Thebae, Thibai (founded by the Phoenicians 
under Cadmus, thence called Cadmea ; it was destroyed by 
Alexander, b.c. 335). Orchomenus, Scripu, near the 
Lake Copais, with a temple of the Graces, (victory of Sulla, 
b.c. 86). Plataeae, or Plataea, Kokla, near Mt. Cithaeron, 
(battle, b.c 479, Mardonius defeated). Thespiae, at the 
foot of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. Le uctra, Lefka, 
S.E. of Thespiae, (battle, b.c 371, Thebans overcame the 
Spartans). Tanagra, Grimada, E. of Thebae, (battle, 
b.c 457, Athenians defeated). Delium, Dilessi, on the 
E. coast, (battle, b.c 424). Haliartus, Mazi, on Lake 
Copais, (battle, b. c 395 ; destroyed by the Romans, b. c 
171). Coronea, S.W. of Lake Copais (Boeotians over- 
came Athenians, b. c 447 ; Agesilaus defeated allied 
Greeks, b.c. 394). Chseronea, Capurna, on the Cephissus, 



4C GEOGRAPHY 

(battles, b.c. 447; Philip conquers the Greeks, b. c. 338 -^ 
Sulla's victory, b.c. 86). As era, near Mt. Helicon, the 
"birth-place of Hesiod. 

ATTICA. — Boundaries. — N., Boeotia ; E., JEgeum Mare, 
S., Saronicus Sinus ; W., Megaris. 

Cities. — Athenae, Athens, between the rivers Cephissua 
and Ilissus, the most celebrated city of antiquity for learn- 
ing and the liberal arts ; it consisted of two parts, viz. : — 
1. The City; 2. Its three ports, Piraeus, Pirceus, Pha- 
lerum, and Munychia, united to the city by two long 
walls, called "Longi Muri," sixty feet in height (vide 
"Topography" for an account of Public Buildings, &c). 
E leu sis, Lepsina, N.W. of Athens, famous for its temple 
and mysteries of Demeter or Ceres. Marathon, Mara- 
thona, N.E. of Athens, (celebrated battle, Athenians and 
Plataeans, under Miltiades, routed the Persians, b.c. 490). 
Phyle, Fili, N.W. of Athens, (here Thrasybulus assem- 
bled the Patriots opposed to the thirty Tyrants, b.c. 404). 
Sunium, Colonna, on a prom, of the same name in the 
extreme S. of Attica. 

MEGARIS. — Boundaries. — N., Bceotia ; E., Attica and Sa- 
ronicus Sinus ; S., Corinthia ; W., Sinus Corinthiacus. 
Cities. — M e g a r a, Megara ; N i s as a, on the coast. 

Peloponnesus. 

ACHAIA. — Boundaries. — N., Sinus Corinthiacus ; E., Co- 
rinthia ; S., Arcadia and Elis. 

Cities. — Helice, on the north coast, the ancient Capital, 
(engulphed by an earthquake, b.c 373); iEgium, Vos« 
titza, (here the meetings of the Achaean league were held) ; 
Patrae, Patras, a sea-port. 

ELIS. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia; E., Arcadia; S., Mes« 
senia ; W., Ionium Mare. 

Divisions. — 1. Elis Proper, N. ; 2. Pisatis w*#f 
Olympia, Middle; 3. Triphylia, South. 



GEOGRAPHY. 41 

Cities. — Elis, on the Peneus. N.W., Cyllene, on the 
coast. Pisa, on the Alpheus, (near this the plain of 
OLYMPIA, where the Olympian games were celebrated. 
Here was the sacred grove "Altis," which, with the 
neighbourhood, were adorned with temples, statues, &c. 
The "Altis" was inclosed by a wall; it contained the fol- 
lowing temples: I. The Olympieum, in which was the 
famous statue of Zeus, by Phidias, made of ivory and gold; 
II. The Heraeum, or Temple of Juno; III. The Metroum. 
Public buildings: The Thesauri of the states ; The Pry- 
tan eum, in which the Olympic victors dined; The Bo u- 
leuterion, or council-hall, in which all the regulations 
were made. The chief buildings without the Altis were 
the Stadium, for gymnastic exercises, and the Hippo- 
dromus, for racing). Pylos, in Triphylia. 

MESSENIA. — Boundaries. — N., Triphylia and Arcadia; 
E., Laconia ; S., Messeniacus Sinus ; W., Mare Ionium. 

Cities. — Pylos, Navarino, in the S.W., (the city of 
Nestor) ; Ithome, in the centre, on a hill of the same 
name ; near which was Messene, ruins, the Capital, built 
by Epaminondas ; Ira, in the N., (which Aristomenes 
defended against the Spartans for eleven years). 

LACONIA. — Boundaries. — N., Arcadia and Argolis ; E., 
Myrtoum Mare ; S., Lacomcus Sinus ; W., Messenia. 

Cities. — Lacedsemon, or Sparta, Sparta, on the 
Eurotas, the Capital of the most powerful state in Greece, 
(the city of Lycurgus, the lawgiver) ; S. of Lacedseinon, 
Amyclae, with a temple to Apollo; Helos, near the 
mouth of the Eurotas, (its inhabitants, the Helots, were 
reduced to slavery by the Spartans); Sellasia, (battle, 
b. c. 222, Athenians, under Antigonus Doson, defeated 
Cleomenes, king of Sparta). 

ARGOLIS. — Boundaries. — N., Corinthia and Saronicus Si- 
nus; E., Myrtoum Mare; S., Argolicus Sinus and Laconia; 
W., Arcadia. 

4* 



42 GEOGRAPHT, 

Cities. — Argos, Argos, on the Inachus, one of the most 
ancient cities in Greece; S.E. of Argos, Nauplia, Napoli 
di Romania, the port of Argos; N. of Argos, Mycenae, 
ruins, (the city of Agamemnon, noted for its Cyclopean 
walls; destroyed by Argives, B.C. 468); Tlryns, ruins, 
S.E. of Argos, (Hercules educated here, hence called Ti- 
rynthlus) ; N erne a, ruins, N.W. of Mycenae, (Hercules 
killed the lion, vide first labour; triennial games cele- 
brated in consequence); Epidaurus, Epidauro, in the 
district of Epidauria, on the Saronic Gulf, (famed for a 
temple of JEsculapius) ; Troezene, Demala, in the district 
Troezenia, in the S.E. of Argolis; Hermione, Kastri, 
in the district Hermlonis, in the South. 

ARCADIA. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia; E., Corinthia and 
Argolis ; S., Laconla and Messenia ; W., Tryphylia and 
Elis. 

Cities. — Man tine a, Paleopoli, in the East, (battle, B.C. 
418, Athenians defeated ; battle, b. c. 362, Epaminondas 
slain); Tegea, Piali, S.E. of Mantinea; Megalopolis, 
ruins, on the Helisson, founded, by the advice of Epami 
nondas, b.c. 371, (the birth-place of Polybius). 

CORINTHIA. — Boundaries. — N., Megaris and Sinus Corin 
thiacus ; E., Saronicus Sinus ; S., Argolis ; W., Achaia. 

Cities. — Corinthus, Corinth, the Capital, built at th* 
foot of a steep mountain, on which stood the Acro-Corin- 
thus, the strongest citadel in Greece, the key of the Pelo- 
ponnesus ; (destroyed by Mummius, the Roman Consul, 
b.c. 146). At the narrowest part of the Isthmus stood 
Fanum Neptuni, a temple of Neptune, near which the 
Isthmian games were celebrated (vide Antiq.). On the 
Asopus: Phil us, the Capital of the independent state, 
Phliasia. 

SICYONIA. — Boundaries. — N., Sinus Corinthiacus ; E., Co- 
rinthia ; S., Arcadia ; W., Achaia. 

City. — S i c y o n, ruins, on the north coast, at the mouth 
of the Asopus. 



GEOGRAPHY. 43 



The Greek Islands. 

IN THE IONIAN SEA.— Corey r a, Corfu; Cap., Corcyra. 
Leucadia, Santa Maura; Cap., Leucas. Ithaca, Theaki; 
Cap., Ithaca. Cephallenia, Cephalonia. Cities. — Ce- 
phallenia and Same. Zacynthus, Zante; Cap., Zacyn- 
thus. Teleboides Insulse, between Leucadia and Epi- 
rus. Cythera, Cerigo, (sacred to Venus). 

IN THE ^EGEAN SEA.— I. In the Western part Hydrea, 
Hydra. Calauria, Calauria, (Demosthenes poisoned him- 
self, B.C. 322). JEgina, Egina. Salamis, Colouri, (battle, 
b. c. 480, Persian fleet defeated by Athenians, under The- 
mistocles). Eubcea, Negropont, Artemisium Prom., 
in the N., (battle, B.C. 480); Cities: 1. C hale is, Negro- 
ponte, the Capital; 2. Eretria. Scyros, Skyro. 

II. In the Northern part. Lemnos, Lemno, (sacred to 
Vulcan, who is said to have fallen on this island, when 
hurled from heaven by Zeus). Imbros, Imbro. Samo- 
thrace, Samothraki. Thasos, Thaso, anciently famous 
for its gold-mines. Tenedos, Tenedos, near the coast of 
Troas. 

III. In the Eastern part. Lesbos, Mytiiene, (noted for 
its wine) ; Cities : 1. Mitylene (the birth-place of Sappho, 
Alcaeus, Pittacus, &c.) ; 2. Methymna. Chios, Skio, 
(famed for its wine). Samos, Samo; Cap., Samos ; 
(sacred to Juno, the native city of Pythagoras). Icaros, 
or -la, Nikaria, which, with the adjoining sea, derived its 
name from Icarus, the son of Daedalus (vide Mythol.). 
Patmos, Patino or Patmos, (to which St. John was 
banished). Leros, Lero. Cos, Kos, (the birth-place of 
Hippocrates the physician, and Apelles the painter). 
Rhodus, Rhodes; Cap., Rhodes, in the port of which 
stood the Colossus. Carpathus, Scarpanto, whence Car- 
pathium Mare. 

IV. In the Southern part, THE CYCLADES. Delos, 
Dclo, in the Centre, with Mt. Cynthus, (the birth-place 
of Apollo and Diana) ; Naxos, Naxo or Naxia ; (sacred to 



44 GEOGRAPHY. 

Bacchus); Paros, Paro, (famed for its white marble). 
N. : Andros, Andro ; Tenos, Teno ; Ceos, Zea; Cyth- 
nos, Thermia ; Syros, Syr a ; Myconos, Myconi ; Serl- 
p h u s, Serpho. S. : M e 1 o s, Milo ; S i p h n u s, Siphno ; 
I os, Nio; AmorguB, Amor go; Thera, Santorin; A sty- 
pa lae a, Stampalia. The name SPORADES was applied 
to those islands not lying round Delos, but scattered apart. 
V. South of the Cyclades. Creta, Candia ; Cap., Gnos- 
sus, (the residence of Minos) ; N.W., Cydonia, Khania, 
(famed for its archers) ; S.W. of Cnossus, Gortyna. Mons 
Ida in the centre of the island ; E., Mons Dicte, in a cave 
»f which Jupiter was brought up. 



BRITANNIA or ALBION. 

Great Britain. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Pigrum, North Sea; E., Ger- 
manicus Oceanus, German Ocean; S., Fretum Gallicum, 
Straits of Dover, and Oceanus Britannicus, English Chan- 
nel; W., Oceanus Hibernicus, Irish Sea, and Verginium 
Mare, St. George's Channel. 

RIVERS, &c. — Tamesis, Thames; Sabrina, Severn; An- 
tona, Nen; Trivona, Trent; Abus, Humber ; Tina, 
Tyne ; I tun a, Eden; Deva, Dee. In Scotland: Bodo- 
tria, Forth; Glotta, Clyde; Tavus, Tay ; Metaris 
JEstuarium, The Wash; Bodotriae JEst., Firth of 
Forth; Glottae jEst., Firth of Clyde; Itunae Mst., Sol- 
way Frith. 

PROMONTORIES.— cell urn Prom., Spurn Head; Can- 
tium Prom., North Foreland ; Ocrlnum Prom., Lizard 
Point ; Bolerium Prom., Land's End. 

DIVISIONS. — S., Britannia Prima; Centre, Flavia 
Caseariensis; W., Britannia Secunda, Wales; N.. 



GEOGRAPHY. 45 

Maxima Caesariensis ; N. of the Wall of Severus, V a- 
lentia, South part of Scotland; N. of the Wall of Anto- 
ninus, Caledonia, North part of Scotland. 

TRIBES. — S. of the Thames: Cantii, Kent; Regni, Surrey 
and Sussex; Belgae, Hants, Wilts, and Somerset; Atre- 
batii, Berks; Durotriges, Dorset; Dumnonii, Devon and 
Cornwall. N. of the Thames: Trinobantes, Middlesex 
and Essex; Simeni, vel Iceni, Suffolk and Norfolk; 
Cattieuchlani, Herts, Bucks, &c. ; Dobuni, Oxon and 
Gloucester; Si lures, South Wales; Ordovices, North 
Wales; Cornavii, Cheshire, Salop, Stafford, Worcester, 
Notts, &c. ; Coritani, Lincoln and Leicester ; Brigantes, 
York, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. 

TOWNS. — S. of the Thames : Durovernum, Canterbury ; Ru- 
tupiae, Richborough ; Venta Belgarum, Winchester; Reg- 
num, Chichester; Aquae Solis, Bath; Uxela, Exeter. N. 
of the Thames: Londinium, London; Verulamium, St. 
Alban } s; Glevum, Gloucester; Corinium, Cirencester; Isca 
Silurum, Caerleon; Lindum, Lincoln; Deva or Deona, 
Chester; Eboracum, York. 

Hadrian's Wall, between the mouth of the Tyne and 
the Solway Frith; erected a.d. 121. Wall of Severus; 
erected a.d. 209. Rampart of Antoninus, between 
the Friths of Forth and Solway ; erected a. d. 140. 

ISLANDS.— Orcades, Orkneys; Ebtides, Hebrides; Thule, 
Shetland Isles [1); Mona (of Caesar), Man; Mona (of 
Tacitus), Anglesey; Cassite rides, Scilly Isles, (famoua 
for their tin) ; Y e c t i s, Isle of Wight ; H i b e r n i a, Ireland; 
Cap., Eblana, Dublin. 



ASIA. 



COUNTRIES. — Asia Minor, Anatolia, Bourn, and Kara 
mania; Syria, Syria and Palestine; Arabia, Arabia; 
Sarmatia Asiatic a, S.E. part of Russia in Europe; 
Colchis, Guriel, Mingrelia, and Imeritia; Iberia, Geor- 
gia ; Albania, Shir van and part of Daghistan ; Armenia, 
Armenia and part of Georgia ; Mesopotamia, Algesira; 
Chaldsea, Irak Arabi; Assyria, Kurdistan; Media, 
N. W. part of Persia ; S u s i a n a, Khuzistan ; Persia, S.W. 
part of Persia ; Hyrcania and P a r t h i a, pari of Turkis- 
tan; Aria, E. part of Khorassan and N. part of Afghan- 
istan; Bactriana, Bokhara; Carmania, Kirman; Ge- 
drosia, S. part of Beloochistan ; Sogdiana, part of 
Turkistan and Bokhara; India, Hindostan, &c; Scythia, 
Tartary. 

MOUNTAINS. — Caucasus, (between Pontus Euxinus and 
Caspium Mare) ; Taurus Mons, in Asia Minor ; Emodi 
Montes, Himalayah Mountains in the N. of India. 

SEAS, GULFS, &c. — Mare Hyrcanum vel Caspium, 
Caspian Sea and Sea ofAral(t); Sinus Arabicus, Red 
Sea; Erythrseum Mare, Arabian Sea; Sinus Per- 
sic us, Persian Gulf; Gangeticus, Bay of Bengal; In- 
dicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean. 

RIVERS. — 1. Rha, Volga (flowing into the Caspian Sea); 

2. Euphrates and Tigris, falling into the Persian Gulf, 

3. Oxus, Jihon, 4. Jaxartes, Sihon, falling into the Sea 

(46) 



GEOGRAPHY. 47 

of Aral, (but supposed by the ancients to fall into Mare 
Caspium) ; 5. Indus, Indus, with its five tributaries; 
6. Ganges, Ganges. 

ISLANDS. — Cyprus, Cyprus, in -the Mediterranean; Ta- 
p rob an a, Ceylon, S. of Hindostan. 



ASIA MINOR. 

Anatolia, Bourn, and Karamania. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; E., 
Euphrates and Syria; S., Mare Internum, Mediter- 
ranean; W., iEgeum Mare, and Propontis, Sea of 
Marmora. 

GULFS. — N., Amisenus Sinus. W., Adramyttenus Sinus, 
Gulf of Adrymiiti; Smyrnseus Sinus, Gulf of Smyrna; 
S., Glaucus Sinus, Gulf of Maori; Issicus Sinus, Gulf of 
Scanderoon. 

MOUNTAINS. — Olympus, a chain extending from N.W. 
to N.E., passing through Galatia, Bithynia, and Paphla- 
gonia; Ida in Troas ; Dindymus in Phrygia, sacred to 
Cybele, (hence called Dindymene) ; Tmolus in Lydia 
(famed for its saffron and wine) ; S.W. of this My c ale, 
(near which the Persian fleet was defeated by the Greek, 
B.C. 479); Cragus in Lycia; Taurus, extending through 
Asia Minor, from W. to E., to the countries beyond the 
Euphrates; Mons Argaeus, Erdgish Dagh, in Cappa- 
docia. 

RIVERS. — Flowing into Pontus Euxinus: 1. Thermodon, 
Thermeh; 2. Iris, Teshel Irmak ; 3. Halys, Kisil Irmak ; 
4. Parthenius; 5. Sangarius, Sakariyeh. Flowing into 
the Propontis: 1. Rhyndacus, Edrenos ; 2. Granlcus, 
(battle, B.C. 334, Alexander defeated the Persian Satraps), 
Flowing into the iEgean Sea: 1. Scamander or Xan- 



48 GEOGRAPHY. 

thus, Mindereh, (joined by the Simois) , 2. Hermus, 
Ghiediz-Chai, (with its tributary Pact 51 us, famed for ita 
golden sands); 3. Caystrus, (abounding in swans); 4. 
Mseander, Mendereh,, (proverbial for its windings). Flow- 
ing into the Mediterranean: 1. Xanthus, Echen-Chai; 
2. Oestrus, Ak-Su; 3. Eurymedon, Kapri-Su, (battle, 
B.C. 469, Cimon defeated the Persians) ; 4. Calycadnus, 
Giuk-Sooyoo ; 5. Cydnus, Tersus-Chai, (famed for the 
clearness and coolness of its water); 5. Sarus, Sihan; 
6. Pyramus, Jihan. 

LAKE. — Tatta Palus, Tuz Got, in Phrygia, a great salt 
lake. 

PROMONTORIES.— N., Car ambis Prom., Cape Karempe. 
At the entrance of the Hellespont: Rhoeteum and Si- 
geum Prom. W., Trogilium Prom., C. St. Mary, near 
which was the PANIONIUM, or place of assembly for the 
twelve Ionian states; Triopium Prom., C. Krio, with 
a temple of Apollo, (surnamed Triopius), the place of 
meeting for the six Dorian states, or " Hexapolis," after- 
wards reduced to five, " Pentapolis." S., Sacrum Prom., 
and Anemurium Prom., C. Anamur. 

DIVISIONS. — N., Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; 
W., Mysia, Lydia, Caria; S., Lycia, Pamphylia, 
Cilicia; Central, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia. 

BITHYNIA. — Cities. — Heraclea Pontica, Harakli, near 
which Acherusia Chersonesus, (with a cave through 
which Hercules is said to have descended to the infernal 
regions to drag up Cerebus). On the Thracian Bosporus: 
1. Chrysopolis, Scutari; 2. Chalcedon, (or the city of 
the blind, so called from its founders having overlooked 
the more delightful situation of Byzantium). On the Pro- 
pontis: 1. Libyssa, Geibuzeh, (where was the tomb of 
Hannibal) ; 2. Nico media, Izmid, the Capital of the 
kings of Bithynia, (here Hannibal died, B.C. 183). On 
L. Ascanius, L. of Iznik: Nicaea, Iznik, (first Christian 
oecumenical council held, a.d. 325). 



GEOGRAPHY. 49 

PAPHLAGUNIA. — Cities. — On the N. coast: Si nope, 
Sinoub or Sinope, (the birth-place of Diogenes, the Cynic 
philosopher); Cy torus, Kydros, famous for its t ox- 
wood. 

PONTUS. — Cities. — On the coast: 1. Trapezus, Tiebizond; 
2. Cerasus, Kheresoun, (from which the cherry-tree was 
first introduced into Italy, by Lucullus) ; 3. Polemo- 
nium, Polemon; 4. Themiscyra, Thermeh{1) (founded 
by the Amazons); 5. Amisus, Samsun, (the residence of 
Mithridates). Inland: Zela, Zilleh, (battle, B.C. 47, Caesar 
conquered Pharnaces ; an account of this battle Caesar sent 
to the Senate in three words, viz., Veni, Vidi, Vici) ; 
Amasia, Amasiah, (the birth-place of Mithridates and 
Strabo the geographer); Magnopolis, (built by Mithri- 
dates and Pompey). 

MYSIA, with TKOAS and ^EOLIS or I A.— Cities. — In the 
N. : Cyzicus, Bal Kiz, (on an island of the same name, 
unsuccessfully besieged by Mithridates, B.C. 75). On the 
Hellespont: 1. Lampsacus, Lapsaki, (celebrated for its 
wine, and one of the cities assigned to Themistocles for his 
maintenance); 2. Abydos, Nagara; 3. Dardanus, from 
which arose the modern name Dardanelles. At the foot 
of Mt. Ida, Troja or Ilium, Troy, with its citadel Per- 
gama; at the head of a bay of the same name, Adra- 
myttium or eum, Adramytti. Inland, on the Caicus: 
Pergamus (on or os), Bergama, (celebrated for its 
library, where parchment (Pergamenae chartae) was first 
used in writing ; the library was afterwards added to that 
at Alexandria). 

LYDIA or M.TONIA with IONI A. — Cities. — On the coast: 
1. Phocaea, a colony from which was founded Mass ilia, 
Marseilles ; 2. Smyrna, Smyrna, (one of the seven cities 
which claimed the honour of being the birth-place of 
Homer); 3. Teos, (the birth-place of Anacreon) ; 4. Colo- 
phon, (famed for its cavalry) ; 5. Ephesus, Ayasaluk, at 
the mouth of the Cayster, (famous for its temple to Diana, 
5 



50 GEOGRAPHY. 

one of the seven wonders). Inland: Magnesia, (battle, 
B.C. 190, Scipio defeated Antioehus) ; Sardes, Sart, on 
the Pactolus, (the Capital of Croesus, king of Lydia, taken 
by Cyrus, b.c. 546). 

CARIA with DORIS.— Cities. — On the Mseander: My us. 
On the coast: 1. Miletus, (one of the chief cities of Asia 
Minor, the birth-place of Thales, Anaximander, and other 
great men): 2. Halicarnassus, Budrum, (the birth-place 
of Herodotus the historian, and Dionysius the rhetorician, 
and celebrated for the tomb of Mausolus. Opposite to 
the island Cos: C nidus), (battle," b.c. 394, Pisander, the 
Spartan admiral, defeated by Conon, the Athenian). 

LYCIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Telmessus, Macru (in- 
habitants famed for augury). On the Xanthus: Xanthus, 
Gunik. Near the mouth of the river: Patara, Patara, 
(with a famous temple and oracle of Apollo). On the 
East: Phaselis, (the head-quarters of the pirates before 
its destruction by P. Servilius Isauricus). 

PAMPHYLIA with PISIDIA and ISAURIA.— Cities.— On 
the S. coast: Attalia. Inland: Per ga, (the birth-place 
of Apollonius the mathematician) ; Selga, the chief city 
in Pisidia; Is aura, chief city in Isauria, (taken, B.C. 75, 
by P. Servilius, who thence received the surname Isau- 
ricus). 

CILICIA. — Divided into Cilicia Trachea or Aspera and 
Cilicia Campestris. Cities. — In C. Aspera. — On the 
coast: 1. Selinus, Sclenti, (where the Emperor Trajan 
died, a.d. 117); 2. Seleucia, Selefkeh ; 3. Corycns 
(famed for its excellent saffron). In C. Campestris: 1. 
Soli, also called Pompeiopolis ; 2. Tarsus, Tersus, on 
the Cydnus, the Capital of Cilicia, (the birth-place of the 
Apostle Paul and many distinguished philosophers, cele- 
brated for the study of philosophy and the liberal arts) ; 
3. Issus, ruins, on the Issic Gulf, (battle, b.c. 333, Alex- 
ander defeated Darius). 



GEOGRAPHY. 51 

PHRYGIA with LYC AONIA. — Cities. — In the S.W. — On 

the Lycus: 1. Colossse, (to the inhabitants of which St. 
Paul addressed an epistle); 2. Laodicea; 3. Apamea 
Cibotus. Near the centre: 1. Ipsus (battle, b.c. 301, 
Antigonus and Demetrius defeated by Lysimachus and 
Seleucus, the two other generals of Alexander) ; 2. Syn- 
nada (famed for its marble). In Lycaonia: 1. Iconium; 
2. Lystra; 3. Derbe (vide Acts xiv.). 

GALATIA. — Cities. — On the Sangarius: 1. Gordium (the 
ancient Capital of Phrygia, where Alexander cut the 
famous " Gordian knot," on which its destinies were sup- 
posed to depend) ; 2. Pessinus (the chief seat of the wor- 
ship of Cybele, whose image was removed to Rome to 
satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books). Near the centre: 
Ancyra, Angora, (the Capital of the province in the time 
of Augustus). 

CAPPADOCIA with ARMENIA MINOR. — Cities. — Near 
the centre, at the foot of Mons Argaeus: Caesarea or 
Mazaca, Kesarieh, the chief city; S.W. of this, Tyana, 
in the district Tyanitis, (the city of Apollonius the im- 
postor). In Armenia Minor: 1. Nicopolis, Devriki; 
2. Cab Ira or Sebaste, Sivas. 

THE SIX DORIAN STATES ("Hexapolis"), which met 
at the temple of Apollo at Triopium Prom., in Doris 
(vide Caria), were, 1. Lyndus; 2. Ialyssus; 3. Camlrus (in 
Rhodes) ; 4. Cos (in the island of Cos) , 5. Cnidus ; 6. Ha- 
licarnassus (in Caria) ; the last city was afterwards ex- 
cluded from the number, the remaining five being termed 
" Pentapolis." 

THE TWELVE IONIAN STATES, which held their meet- 
ings at the Panionium, near Mt. Mycale, in Ionia (vide 
Lydia), were, 1. Miletus ; 2. Myus ; 3. Priene (in Caria) , 
4. Ephesus ; 5. Colophon ; 6. Lebedos ; 7. Teos ; 8. Ery- 
thrae ; 9. Clazomene : 10. Phocaea (in Lydia) ; 11. Chios , 
and 12. Samos ; Smyrna from the iEolian colony increased 
the number to thirteen. 



52 GEOGRAPHY 

THE ^OLIAN LEAGUE ("Panseoli :m w ) possessed 
twelve cities, which met at Smyrna: 1. Cyme; 2. Larissse; 
3. Neontichos; 4. Temnus; 5. Cilia; 6. Notium; 7. iEgi- 
russa; 8. Pitane ; 9. iEgaeae ; 10. Myrina; 11. Grynea; 12. 
Smyrna (which subsequently became an Ionian colony). 

THE "SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA." — 1. Ephesus; 
2. Smyrna; 3. Pergamos ; 4. Thyatira; 5. Sardis ; 6. Phi- 
ladelphia; 7. Laodicea. 

Island. 

CYPRUS (sacred to Venus), separated from Asia Minor by 
Aulon Cilicius. Towns. — On the W. coast: 1. Paphos, 
Baffa; Am a thus, Limasol ; 2. Citium (the birth-place 
of Zeno the Stoic philosopher) ; E., Salami s, (said to 
have been founded by Teucer) ; N., Lapethus and Soli. 
Inland: 1. Tamasus (famed for its copper-mines); 2. 
Idalium (sacred to Venus). Mountain. — Olympus. 



SYRIA— PALiESTINA. 

BOUNDARIES.— N., Amanus Mons, and Taurus Mons; 
E., R. Euphrates and Arabia; S., Arabia; W., Mare 
Internum, Mediterranean. 

MOUNTAINS. — Casius Mons, Jebel Okrah; Lebanon 
(famed for its snowy summits and its cedars), divided into 
Libanus on the W. and Antilibanus on the E., to the 
E. Mt. Hermon. On the sea-coast: C arm el. Inland, 
in Galilee: Mt. Tabor, Mt. Hermon, and Mt. Gilboa. 
In Samaria: Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim; (on the latter 
the Samaritans erected a temple to rival that at Jerusalem.) 
In Peraea: Mt. Nebo and Mt. Abarim. 

RIVERS. — Falling into the Mediterranean: 1. Orontes, El 
Asy, from the S. ; 2. Leontes. Jordanes, Jordan, from 
Hermon, flowing S., through, 1. Semechonltis Lacus, 



GEOGRAPHY. 53 

Waters of Meron; 2. L. Tiberias vel L. Gennesaret, 
Lake Chinnereth or Sea of Galilee, falls into 3. Lac us 
Asphaltltes vel Mare Mortuum vel Salsum, Dead 
Sea or Salt Sea. 

DIVISIONS. — 1. Syria; 2. Phoenicia; 3. Palsestina. 

SYRIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Seleucia Pieria, Capital 
of the district; Lao dice a, Ladikeyeh. Inland, on the 
Orontes: 1. Antiochia, Antioch, the Capital, (where the 
disciples were first called Christians); 2. Epiphanea, 
(0. T. Hamath), Hamah ; Heliopolis or Balbec, near 
the source of the Leontes ; (with a magnificent temple of 
the sun); to the S.E., Damascus, one of the most ancient 
cities in the world; E. of Antioch, Chalybon or Bercea, 
Aleppo. In the Desert: Palmyra or Tadmor, (the city 
of Zenobia, with whom Longinus the philosopher resided, 
destroyed a.d. 273). On the Euphrates: 1. Samosata, 
Someisat, (the birth-place of Lucian) ; 2. Zeugma; 3. 
Thapsacus, (famed for its ford, by which Cyrus in his 
expedition, Darius in his retreat, and Alexander previous 
to the battle of Arbela, crossed the Euphrates). 

PHOENICIA.— Cities. — On the coast: 1. Tripoli s, Tara- 
bulus or Tripoli; 2. Byblus, Jebeil; 3. Berytus, Beirout; 
4. Si don, jSaida, (famed for its commerce and manufac- 
tures of glass) ; 5. Sarepta, for some time the residence 
of Elijah ; 6. Tyrus, Tyre or Sur, (celebrated for its mari- 
time wealth, enterprise, commerce, and colonizing activity: 
taken, B.C. 332, after a siege of seven months, by Alex- 
ander) ; 7. Ptolemais, Acre, one of the oldest Phoenician 
cities. 

PAL^ESTINA vel JVDMA.— In Scripture called Canaan, 
The Land of Promise, The Land of Israel, and The Holy 
Land. 

TRIBES. — W. of the Jordan: 1. Asher; 2. Naphthali; 
3. Zebulon; 4. Issachar; 5. a half tribe of Man ass eh; 
5* 



54 GEOGRAPHY. 

6. Ephraim; 7. Dan; 8. Simeon; 9. Benjamin; 10. 
Judah; E. of the Jordan: a half tribe of Manasseh, 
11. Gad; 12. Reuben. After the death of Solomon the 
land was divided into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah 

DIVISIONS. — 1. N., Galilaea (divided into Galilaea Su- 
perior, Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilaea Inferior. 
Lower Galilee). 2. Centre: Samaria. 3. S. : Judaea. 

4. Batanasa ; 5. Peraea, both beyond the Jordan. 

GALILEE. — Cities. — In the N. : Dan ; E. of this, Cae^area 
Phi lip pi vel Pane as, Banias. On the borders of the 
Sea of Galilee: 1. Capernaum (our Saviour's usual place 
of residence) ; 2. Bethsaida (the city of Peter, Andrew, 
and Philip); 3. Tiberias (built by Herod Antipas, in 
honour of Augustus Caesar). W. of the Lake: Dio Cae- 
sarea vel Sepphoris, Sefurieh; 2. Cana (where our 
Lord wrought his first miracle at the marriage-feast). 

5. of Cana: 1. Nazareth (the residence of Joseph and 
Mary) ; 2. Nain, where the widow's son was restored to 
life. 

SAMARIA. — Cities. — Near the centre: Samaria, aft. 
Sebaste, (founded by Omri, king of Israel; it was the 
Capital of the ten tribes until taken by Shalmaneser, king 
of Assyria, b.c. 721). S. of this, 1. Shechem or Sychar, 
afterwards Neapolis, Nablous; 2. Shiloh, (where Joshua 
erected the tabernacle); S.E., Archelais, founded by 
Archelaus, son of Herod. On the coast: Caesarea, or 
Turris Stratonis, Kaisariyeh, (the residence of the Roman 
Procurators). 

JUDiEA. — Cities. — On the coast: Joppa, Jaffa, a very 
ancient maritime city; in the N., Bethel, S.E. of this 
Jericho or Hierichus, (taken and destroyed by Joshua) ; 
S. of Bethel, Emmaus, afterwards Nicopolis. W. of 
the northern extremity of the Dead Sea: Jerusalem vel 
Hierosolyma (originally Jebus, the city of the Jebu- 
sites), the Capital of the Jewish nation from the time of 



GEOGRAPHY. 55 

David, b.c. 1048; destroyed by Titus, a. d. 70; the city 
was situated on four hills, 1. Zion (or the Upper City), on 
which a fortress was erected by David; 2. Acra (or the 
Lower City) ; 3. Mori ah, on which the temple was built; 

4. Bezetha ; at the foot of Mt. Moriah was the brook Ke- 
dron, which flowed into the Dead Sea ; N.E. of Jerusalem, 
Bethany and the Mt. of Olives; S. from Jerusalem, 
1. Bethlehem, the birth-place of David and of Our 
Blessed Saviour; 2. Hebron, the burial-place of Abra- 
ham, Isaac, and Jacob. 

Five principal cities of the Philistines: 1. Gath; 2 
Ekron or Accaron; 3. Azotus or A s h d o d, famed for 
its temple to Dagon; 4. Ascalon; 5. Gaza. 

PEILEA and BATAN^IA. — In Persea: 1. Heshbon; 2. 
Ramoth Gilead; 3. Bethabara, on the Jordan. In 
Batansea and N. of Peraea: DECAPOLIS, comprising, 

1. Canatha; 2. Hippus; 3. Gadara; 4. Capitolias; 5. Abila; 
6. Scythopolis; 7. Pella; 8. Gerasa; 9. Dium ; 10. Phila- 
delphia. 

THE CITIES OF REFUGE.— W. of the Jordan: l.Kedesh; 

2. Shechem; 3. Hebron. E. of the Jordan: 4. Golan; 

5. Ramoth Gilead ; 6. Bezer. 

SEVEN HEATHEN NATIONS. — 1. The Hittites; 2. Gir- 
gashites; 3. Amorites; 4. Canaanites; 5. Peiizzites; 6. 
Hivites ; 7. Jebusites. 



ARABIA. 

Arabia. 



BOUNDARIES. — N., Syria and Chaldsea.; E., Sinus 
Persicus; S., Erythrseum Mare, Arabian Sea; W f 
iEgyptus, Egypt; Sinus Arabious, Bed Sea or Ara- 
bian Gulf; Dirse, Straits of Babel MandeL 



56 GEOGRAPHY. 

MOUNTAINS. — In the N., between the two branches of the 
Red Sea: Mt. Sinai and Mt. Horeb; Mt. Hor, near 
Petra. 

DIVISIONS. — N.W., ARABIA PETR^EA; W. and S., 
ARABIA FELIX ; E. and in the interior, ARABIA DE 
SERTA. 

TRIBES, &c — N., Idumsea; W., Nabathsei; S., Sabsei, 
Cap. Saba or Mar i aba, 0. T. Sheba. In Arabia Petraea: 
Petra. 0. T. Tribes bordering on Palestine : Ammonites, 
Moabites, Midianites, Edomites, Amalekites. 



COUNTRIES between PONTUS EUXIftUS, Black 
Sea, and HYRCANUM MARE, Caspian Sea. 

I. SARMATIA ASIATICA, Circassia, and S. E. part of 
Russia in Europe. — Boundaries. — N.E., R. Rha, Volga; 
S. E., Caspium Mare, Caspian Sea; S., Caucasus 
Mons; W., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and R. Ta- 
nais, Don. 

II. COLCHIS or MA., Cfuriel, Imeritia, and Mingrelia.— 
Boundaries. — N., Mons Caucasus; E., Iberia; S. 
Armenia; W., Pontus Euxinus. 

Chief River. — Phasis, Faz (which has given its name 
to the pheasant, said to have been first brought to Greece 
from its banks). 

Towns. — On the Phasis: Cyta, (where Medea was said 
to have been born). On the N. W. coast: Dioscuri as, 
Iskuria, (a considerable trading city). 

III. IBERIA, Georgia. — Boundaries. — N., C au c a s u s ; E., 
Albania; S., Armenia; W., Colchis (inhabitants, 
Iberes or Iberi). 

Chief River. — Cyrus, Kour, (tributaries, Cambyses and 
Alason). 

Tribe.— W., Moschi. 



GEOGRAPHY. 57 

IV. ALBANIA, SJiirvan and part of Daghistan. — Bound- 
aries. — N., Sarmatia Asiatica; E., Hyrcanum Mare; 
S., R. Cyrus, Kour ; W., Iberia. 
Mountain. — Caucasus Mons. 



ARMENIA PROPRIA, vel MAJOR. 

Armenia and part of Georgia. 

BOUNDARIES.— N., Colchis, Iberia, and Albania; E., 
a point at the junction of the Araxes and Cyrus; S., Me- 
dia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia; W., R. Euphrates. 

MOUNTAINS. — Mons Ararat, Imbarus Mons, Niphates 
Montes. 

RIVERS. — 1. Araxes, Aras (rising in the country of the 
Chalybes), with its tributary, Harpasus, falls into the 
Caspian; 2. Euphrates, formed by two branches from 
the N. and E., and flow S., into Sinus Persicus, The 
Persian Gulf; 3. Tigris, with its tributaries, Nymphaeus 
and Nicephorius. 

LAKE. — Arsissa Palus, Lake Van. 

TOWNS. — On the Araxes: Artaxata. On the Tigris: 
Ainida. On the Nicephorius: Tigranocerta (founded 
by Tigranes, son-in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus). 



MESOPOTAMIA. 
Algesira. 

MESOPOTAMIA, so named from its position between the 
rivers Euphrates (W.) and Tigris (E.), was bounded 
on the N. by Masius Mons, Armenia, and Taurus 
Mons; S., by Babylonia. 



58 GEOGRAPHY. 

RIVER. — Chaboras or Aborrhas, Khabour (a branch of 
the Euphrates). 

DIVISIONS. — N.W., Osroene; N.E., Mygdonia. 

TOWNS. — On the Euphrates: 1. Nlcephorium, EaJckah 
(built by order of Alexander); 2. Cunaxa (battle, b. c. 
401, Cyrus the Younger defeated and slain by Artaxerxes 
his brother. The Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus commence 
their return to Greece, usually called the retreat of the 
Ten Thousand). Between the two rivers: 1. Edessa, 
(0. T. Ur), TJrfdh, the Capital of Osroene; 2. Charrse, 
the Haran of the 0. T., (death of Crassus, and defeat by 
the Parthians, B.C. 53); 3. Nisibis, Cap. of Mygdonia, 
and a very important place as a military post. 



BABYLONIA AND CHALD.EA. 

Irak Ardbi. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Mesopotamia; E., R.Tigris; S., 
Persicus Sinus; W., Arabia. 

Cities. — Babylon, rui?is, on the Euphrates, founded by 
Nimrod, about b.c. 2000, and taken by Cyrus, B.C. 538 ; it 
was built in the form of a quadrangle, on both sides of the 
Euphrates, and was distinguished for its extent and mag- 
nificence. Its chief buildings were: 1. The Tower of 
Belus;2.The01dRoyal Palace; 3.The New Palace, 
with the hanging gardens (i. e. gardens laid out in the 
form of terraces over arches). S. of Babylon: Borsippa 
(the chief residence of the Chaldasan astrologers), and 
Seleucla, on the Tigris, for a long time the Capital of 
W. Asia. 



GEOGRAPHY. 59 

COUNTRIES East of the EUPHRATES and 
TIGRIS. 

I. ASSYRIA, Koordistan. — Boundaries. — N., Armenia; 
E., Media; S., Susiana; W., R. Tigris. 

Rivers. — Flowing into the Tigris: Zabatus vel Lycus, 
Zab ; Del as or Sill a, Diala. 

Divisions. — N., Aturia; Centre, Adiabene; S., Sit- 
tacene. 

Cities. — On the Tigris: 1. Ninus or Nineveh, near 
Mosul, (the Capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, de- 
stroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, b. c. 606) ; 2. 
Ctesiphon (the usual winter residence of the Parthian 
monarchs). E. of the Tigris: Gaugamela, (the scene of 
the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius, 
b.c. 331, usually called the battle of Arbela, from its 
proximity to that town). 

II. MEDIA, North-west part of modern Persia, Irak. — 
Boundaries. — N., Armenia, R. Araxes, and Caspium 
Mare; E., Hyrcania and Aria; S., Persia and Su- 
siana; W., Assyria, 

Divisions. — N., Atropatene; Chief Town, Gaza. S., 
Media Magna. 

Chief Towns. — JScbatana, Humadan, (near Mt. Orontes, 
the residence of the Median, and latterly of the Persian 
kings. The city was built without walls, on the slope 
of a hill, on the summit of which stood the royal castle, 
surrounded by seven walls, with battlements). N. E. of 
Ecbatana : Kcwrtwu. rtvXat, a mountain-pass ; near this the 
Nicaean plains, famed for the breed of white horses. 

III. SUSIANA or SUSIS, Khuzistan. — Boundaries. — N. , 
Assyria; E., Persia; S., Sinus Persicus; W., R. 
Tigris. 

Rivers. — Choaspes, Kerah; Coprates, Abzalj and 
Pasi-Tigris, Karoon (?), fall into the Tigris. 



60 GEOGRAPHY. 

Tribes. — Cossse, Elamltse. 

Capital. — Susa (0. T. Shushan), on the Choaspes (tho 
winter residence of the Persian monarchs). 

IV. PERSIA or PERSIS, Persia. — Boundaries. — N., Me- 
dia; E., Carmania; S., Sinus Persicus; W., Su- 
siana. 

Cities. — Persepolis (the burial-place of the Persian 
kings); Pasargada (founded by Cyrus the Great, in 
memory of his victory over Astyages, the last king of 
Media, b.c. 559). 



COUNTRIES South of the R. OXUS, Jihon. 

I. HYRCANIA, Astrabad. — Boundaries. — N. and E., Par- 
thia; S., Media; "W., Caspium Mare. 

II. PARTIIIA, Khorassan (inhabited by a very warlike 
people). — Boundaries. — N., Scythia; E., Aria; S. and 
S.W., Media; W., Hyrcania. 

Capital. — Hecatompylus (founded by Arsaces). 

III. ARIA or ARIANUS, East part of Khorassan and N. 
of Afghanistan. — Boundaries. — N., Parthia; E., Bac- 
triana and Indo-Scythia ; S., Gedrosia; W., Car- 
mania and Media. 

Divisions. — N., Margiana (famed for its wine) ; Centre, 
Drangiana [River: Etymandrus, flowing into Aria 
Palus, Lake Zurrah) ; S., Arachosia. 

Tribe. — Paropamisadse (at the foot of Paropamisus 
Mons vel Caucasus, Eindoo-Koosh. 

Capital. — Aria vel Artacoana, Herat. 

IV. BACTRIANA or BACTRIA, Bokhara.— Boundaries.— 
N., Oxus, R. Jihon; E. and S., Paropamisus Mons, 
Hindoo-Koosli ; W., Aria. 



GEOGRAPHY. 61 

Capital. — Backtra, Balk (the winter-quarters of Alex- 
ander, b.c. 329). 

V. C ARMANI A, Kirman. — Boundaries. — E., Aria and Ge- 
drosia; S., Sinus Persicus ; W. and N.W., Persia. 

Divisions. — Carmania Propria and Carmania De- 
serta. 

Capital. — Caramana, Kirman. 

VI. GEDROSIA, Beloochistan. — Boundaries. — N., Aria; 
E., Paropamisus Mons, JSdla Mts. ; S., Erythraaum 
Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Carmania. 

Mountains. — Parsici Montes, near the centre. 
Tribes. — Ichthyophagi, Oritae, and Arabitse, on 
the coast. 

Capital. — Pur a. 



COUNTRIES North of the OXUS. 

I. SOGDIANA, part of Turkestan and Bokhara. — Bound- 
aries. — N., R. Jaxartes, Sihon or Sirr ; E., Imaus 
Mons; S., R. Oxus, Jihon or Amou; W., Sea of Aral 
(unknown to the ancients.) 

Cities. — Maracanda, Samarkand (the Capital); Cyro- 
polis, on the Jaxartes (founded by Cyrus). 

II. SCYTHIA (Independent Tartary and Mongolia), the name 
given to the large tract of country N. of the Caspian 
Sea, R. Jaxartes, and Emodi Montes, Himalaya Mts., 
and E. of Sogdiana and Bactriana. Scythia was 
divided by Imaus Mons, Altai Mts., into Scythia intra 
Imaum, on the N.W., and Scythia extra Imaum, on 
the S.E. 

Tribes, &c. — Sacse and Massagetas; E. of Scythia 
extra Imaum, S eric a, N.W. part of China, inhabitants 
the Seres, famous for their manufactures of silk (the coun- 
try was regarded as the native region of the silk-worm.) 
6 



62 GEOGRAPHY. 

INDIA. 

Hindostan, Birmah, Siam, Cochin Cliina, and Malaya. 

BOUNDARIES.— N., Emodi Monte s, Himalaya Mts., and 
Scythia; S., Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, and 
Indicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean; W., Erythrseum 
Mare, Arabian Sea, and Paropaniisus Mons, Hala 
and Soliman Mts. 

RIVERS. — I. N.W., Indus, Indus, with its five tributary 
streams: 1. Hydaspes, Jelum ; 2. Ace sines, Chenaub ; 
3. Hydraotes, Ravee; 4. Hyphasis, Gharra or Beeas ; 
5. Zaradrus, Sutlej. II. Ganges, Ganges. III. Dyar- 
danes or (Edones, Burrampooter. 

DIVISIONS.— W. of the Ganges, India intra Gangem; 
E. of the Ganges, India extra Gangem. 

TOWNS, &c — On the Indus: Taxila, Attock (near which 
Alexander crossed the river). On the Hydaspes: Buce- 
phala, Jelum (built by Alexander, in memory of his 
favourite horse Bucephalus, which died and was buried 
here, B.C. 327). Malli, a tribe on each side of the Ace- 
sines, Chenaub ; their Capital is supposed to have been on 
the site of the fortress of Moult an. On the Ganges: 
Pallbothra, Patna, the Capital of the Prasii. 

ISLANDS, &c— Taprobane vel Salice, Ceylon; Jabadi? 
Ins., Sumatra; Aurea Chersonesus Malaya; E. of 
which, Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Siam. 



AFRICA 



BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; E., 
Arabia, Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea, and Erythrseum 
Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic 
Ocean. 

BAYS. — Syrtis Major, GulfofSidra; Syrtis Minor, 
Gulf of Cabes. 

STRAIT. — Fretum Herculeum vel Gaditanum, Straits 
of Gibraltar. 

RIVERS. — Nil us, Nile, remarkable for its periodical inun- 
dations ; some few miles below Memphis the river divided 
into three branches, but now into two, E., Ostium Phatni- 
ticum, at Damietta, W., Ostium Bolbitlnum, at Rosetta, 
which flows through a low land, called from its shape 
(resembling the fourth letter of the Greek language) 
"Delta," and fell into the Mediterranean. The seven 
ancient mouths, from E. to W., were: 1. Pelusiac; 2. Saitic; 
3. Mendesian ; 4. Phatnitic, or Bucolic ; 5. Sebennytic ; 6. 
Bolbitic ; 7. Canopic. Of these the fourth and sixth were 
artificial. 

LAKES. — Near the western mouth of the Nile, L. Ma- 
reotis; S. of this, L. Moeris. E. of the Nile, L. Sir- 
bonis. 

(63) 



64 GEOGRAPHY. 

JEGYPTUS. 

Egypt. 

BOUNDARIES. — N., Mediterranean; E., Arabia and 
Sinus Arabicus, Red.Sea; S., ^Ethiopia; W., Libya. 

DIVISIONS. — 1. N., iEgyptus Inferior or Delta; 2. 
Middle: Heptanomis; 3. S., iEgyptus Superior vel 
Thebais. 

^GYPTUS INFERIOR vel DELTA.— Cities.— Between L. 
Mareotis and the Sea, Alexandria, with two harbours 
(the Capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, founded by 
Alexander, b.c. 332, and famous for its learning and com- 
merce ; the library is said to have contained 400,000 
volumes). Opposite to Alexandria: the island Pharos, 
with a famous light-house, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
B.C. 283. E. of Alexandria: Canopus, near Aboukir (its 
inhabitants were proverbial for their luxury). In the 
Delta: 1. Naucratis, founded by the Milesians, the only 
place in Egypt where Greeks were permitted to settle and 
trade) ; 2. Sais (the ancient Capital of Lower Egypt — it 
contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs) ; 
3. Buslris, with the temple of Isis ; 4. Buto (with an 
oracle of the Egyptian goddess Buto). E. of the Delta: 
1. Pelusium (surrounded by swamps, and called, from 
its situation, the Key of Egypt); E. of this, Casius Mons, 
with a temple of Jupiter ; here also was the grave of Pom- 
pey; 2. He Hop ol is, or On, O.T. (with a celebrated temple, 
the chief seat of the worship of the Sun) ; 3. Bubastis 
(where the great annual festival to the goddess Bubastis, 
or the Moon, was held). 

HEPTANOMIS. — Cities. — On the W. side of the Nile: 1. 
Memphis or Moph, the Capital (near which were the 
celebrated Pyramids) : of its splendid buildings the chief 
were, the Palace of the Pharaohs and the temples of 
Apis and Serapis; 2. Crocodilopolis or Arsinfte 



GEOGRAPHY. 65 

(the chief seat of the worship of the Crocodile) : near this, 
the famous Labyrinthus, containing 3000 apartments, 
in which the kings and sacred crocodiles were buried ; 
3. Oxyrhyncus, Behneseh, so called from the fish of that 
name there worshipped. 

^EGYPTUS SUPERIOR vel THEB AIS. — Cities. — On the 
W. side of the Nile: 1. Ptolemais, Menshieh (an import- 
ant city under the Ptolemies) ; 2. Abydos, with a M em- 
no nium, (i. e. a building erected by, or in honour of 
Memnon), and a temple of Osiris; 3. Thebae vel Dios- 
polis, on both sides of the Nile, Capital of Thebais, and 
the most ancient residence of the Egyptian kings : this 
city, called the hundred-gated (sxatofxrcv'Koi,), possessed 
many magnificent buildings, the ruins of which now 
enclose a space two miles in length; 4. Elephantine, 
and 5. Philae, on two small islands, with many architec- 
tural remains. On the E. side of the Nile: 1. Syene, 
Assouan, the S. frontier city of Egypt; 2. Coptos, Kofi, 
(the central point of commerce between India and Arabia, 
by way of Berenice, on the Arabian Gulf). 

At the N. of the Red Sea: Cleopatris vel Arsinoe, 
Suez. 

South of Egypt: ^Ethiopia, Nubia, Senaar, Kordofan, 
and Abyssinia. 

Rivers. — Astapus and Astaboras, flowing into the 
Nile. 

City. — Meroe (the Capital of the powerful kingdom of 
Heroe), with a famous oracle of Ammon. 



NORTHERN COASTS OF AFRICA. 

DIVISIONS. — I. Libya, Barca, with the provinces; 1. Mar- 

marica; 2. Cyrenalca. II. Tripolitana vel Regio 

Syrtica, Tripoli. III. Africa Propria, Tunis, with Zeu- 

gitana and Byzacium vel Emporia. IV. Numidia, 

6* 



66 GEOGRAPHY. 

Algiers. V. Mauritania, Morocco and Fez, divided into 
Mauritania Caesariensis, E., and Mauritania Tin- 
gitana, TV. 

LIBYA, Barca. — Towns. — In Marmarica. — On the coast : 
Paraetonium, El-Bareton ; S. of this, Oasis of Amnion, 
famous for its temple, visited by Alexander; W. of Parseto- 
nium, Catabathmos, generally considered the boundary 
between Egypt and Cyrenaica. In Cyrenaica: Cyrene, 
the chief city (founded by Battus, B.C. 631), the birth-place 
of Aristippus, the philosopher, and Callimachus, the poet ; 
S.W. of Cyrene, Barce, Barca, chief town of the Barcitae. 
On the coast: 1. Ptolemais; 2. Berenice, the fabled 
site of the Gardens of the Hesperides. 

TRIPOLITANI, Tripoli.— Towns.— On the coast : 1. Leptis 
Magna vel Neapolis; 2. Oea, Tripoli; 3. Sabrata 
(these three cities formed the African Tripolis). 

Tribe. — On the coast: Lotophagi or Eaters of the 
Lotus, the taste of which was so delicious, that those who 
eat of the fruit lost all desire to return to their native 
country. 

AFRICA PROPRIA, Tunis, divided into Byzacium and 
Zeugitana. — Towns. — In Byzacium. — On the coast: 1. 
Tacape, Cabes ; 2. T haps us, Demas (battle, b. c." 46 r 
Caesar defeated the Pompeian army) ; 3. Leptis Minor, 
Lamta; 4. Hadrumetum (the Capital of Byzacium under 
the Romans). Inland: Tritonis Palus, El Sibkah (in 
which Minerva is said to have been born, and hence called 
"Tritonia"). In Zeugitana. — On the coast: 1. Tunes, 
Tunis; 2. Carthago, the Capital of Africa, situated at 
the head of a bay, formed by two promontories, Her- 
maeum Prom., C. Bon, and Apollinis Prom., C. Fa- 
rina. The Tyrian colony of Carthage was said to have 
been founded by Dido, about b. c. 853 — its citadel was 
termed Byrsa (Bvpoct, "a hide"), in reference to the manner 
in which the portion of land for building the first city was 



GEOGRAPHY. 67 

obtained by Dido (destroyed, B.C. 146, by Scipio Africanus 
the Younger) ; 2. Utica, near the mouth of the BagrSdas, 
the second city in Africa, and even more ancient than 
Carthage (the birth-place of Cato, whence he received the 
surname of Uticensis). Inland: Zama (battle, B.C. 202, 
Hannibal defeated by Scipio, and the Second Punic war 
ended). 

NUMIDIA, E. part of Algiers. — Town.— Cirta, the Capital, 
the city of Syphax and Masinissa. 
Tribe. — Massy li. 

MAURITANIA, Morocco, Fez, and part of Algiers. — Towns. 
— On the coast: 1. Cartenna, Tennez ; 2. Siga; 3. Tin- 
gis, Tangier; 4. Sal a, Sallee. S. of Mauritania: Atlas 
Mons, Mt. Atlas. Tribes. — S. of Atlas Mons, Numidia 
and Africa Propria, Gaetuli, E. of which Garamantes, 
dwelling in the region Phazania, Fezzan, Cap. Garama, 
Mourzouk. 

ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic : Insulae Purpurariae, pro- 
bably the Madeira, S. of which Insula) Fortunatae, 
Canary islands, in which the ancients suppo. ed the Elysian 
fields to be situated; Hesperidum Insulae, Cape Verdt 
Islands, )r the Bissagos group. 



MYTHOLOGY. 



THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN OR NATIONAL 
DEITIES OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 

JUPITER (Zev?), son of Saturn and Ops, king of gods and 
men, and the most powerful of all the deities. He was 
educated in a cave on Mount Ida. When a year old he 
made war against the Titans, in the cause of his father 
Saturn, and liberated him. He is usually represented as 
sitting on an ivory or golden throne, holding in his hand 
thunderbolts. He bore a shield or goat-skin called iEgis. 

NEPTUNE (lloasri&v), son of Saturn and Ops, and chief 
deity of the sea ; he was on this account entitled to more 
power than any other god except Jupiter. He is repre- 
sented as carrying the trident, or three-pronged spear, 
attended by dolphins. Amphitrlte was his queen. 

VULCAN ("HfjxxKJT'os), son of Juno ; the god of fire, and 
patron of all workers in iron and metals : his palace, which 
was in Olympus, contained his workshop, in which he 
made many ingenious and marvellous works, both for gods 
and men. His abode is said by some to have been in a 
volcanic island. The Cyclops were his workmen. 

MARS ("Apj/j), the god of war; son of Jupiter and Juno. 
He presided over gladiators, and was the patron of manly 
and warlike exercises. He is generally represented as 
riding in a chariot, drawn by furious horses, called Flight 
and Terror. In the Trojan war he is said to have taken 
the part of the Trojans. In Rome he received the most 
unbounded honours* 

(68) 



MYTHOLOGY. 69 

MERCURIUS ( c Epp?$), son of Jupiter and Maia ; messenger 
of the gods, and deity of eloquence, commerce, and the a ts. 
He conducted the souls of the dead into the lower world, 
and is usually represented with a winged hat and sandals, 
bearing the caduceus in his hand. Hermes was born on 
Mount Cyllene, in Arcadia. 

APOLLO, son of Jupiter and Latona ; god of music, medi- 
cine, augury, painting, poetry, and all the fine arts. He 
was born, with his sister Diana, near Mount Cynthus, in 
Delos, an island in the iEgean Sea. When he grew up he 
slew the serpent Python, which infested the country near 
Delphi, and established the famous oracle. He received 
the surname of Phoebus from his connexion with the Sun 
(Qol&o$, the bright). 

JUNO ("Hpa or "Hpjy), the daughter of Saturn and Ops, sister 
and wife of Jupiter, and queen of all the gods. She was 
born at Argos (some say Samos), and is noted for her 
jealousy and severity to the illegitimate children of 
Jupiter. 

MINERVA or ATHENA ('Afl^ or 'A0^a, noWLaj), daughter 
of Jupiter, said to have sprung from his forehead com- 
pletely armed. She was goddess of wisdom, war, and the 
liberal arts, the guardian and aider of heroes, and pre- 
siding goddess of Athens. She is always represented with 
a helmet, breast-plate (or iEgis), and shield ; on the latter 
was the Gorgon's head. Her favourite bird was the owl, 
which was sacred to her. 

VESTA ('Ecm'a), the goddess of the hearth, and also of fire. 
Her worship was introduced into Italy by iEneas. The 
fire on the altar in her temple was never allowed to go 
out ; but, when such was the case, it was kindled again by 
the rays of the sun. The priestesses dedicated to her ser- 
vice were called Vestals. 

CERES (Arjuiqtrjp), daughter of Saturn and Rhea (or Ops) ; 
goddess of corn and plenty, the same as Isis of the Egyp- 
tians. She was mother of Proserpine, and is represented 
holding a sceptre or torch, and a garland of ears of corn 
round her head. 



70 MYTHOLOGY. 

VENUS ('A^po&V^), daughter of Jupiter and Dione and wife 
of Vulcan, the goddess of love and beauty, queen of laughter, 
and mistress of the graces and pleasures. Venus is sup- 
posed to have sprung from the foam of the sea near the 
island of Cyprus or Cythera. In the contest for the golden 
apple of beauty, Paris awarded it to Venus, in preference 
to Pallas and Juno. Her favourite birds were swans and 
doves, her sacred flowers the rose and myrtle. 

DIANA ("Apt spit), daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and 
sister of Apollo ; the goddess of woods and hunting. On 
earth she was called Diana, in heaven Luna, in the lower 
world Proserpina or Hecate. 

Note. — The deities of the Romans were adapted to those of the 
Greeks, with which they do not entirely correspond. 



MINOR DEITIES. 

iEOLUS, a king of the iEolian Islands. He is fabled to be 
the god of the winds, from his foretelling the changes of 
the winds and weather. 

iESCULAPIUS fAffxtojrftos), the god of medicine, instructed 
in this science by Chiron. He was worshipped throughout 
Greece ; and his temples, which were built in healthy 
places, on hills, or near wells, were not only places of wor- 
ship, but frequented by sick persons. 

AMMON, a surname of Jupiter, worshipped in Libya, and 
afterwards in Egypt. 

AMPHITRITE, a NEREID or OCEANID, wife of Neptune, 
and goddess of the sea. 

APIS, the bull of Memphis, worshipped by the Egyptians. 
He was allowed to live but about twenty-five years, and 
was then slain and secretly buried ; but if he died a natural 
death, he was buried publicly, with great solemnity. 

ASTRiEA, daughter of Zeus and Themis; goddess of justice 
She lived on earth during the golden age ; but the wicked- 
ness of mankind drove her to heaven during the brazen 



MYTHOLOGY. 71 

and iron ages. She was placed among the constellations, 
under the name of Virgo, and is represented holding a pail 
of scales in one hand, and a sword in the other. 

AURORA (Eds, "Eco$), the goddess of the morning, daughter 
of Hyperion, and wife of Tithonus son of Laomedon. She 
is represented as setting out before Helios her brother, 
drawn in a chariot by four white steeds, and dispelling 
darkness and sleep. 

BACCHUS (Dionysus, AkWjos), the god of wine, son of 
Jupiter and Semele the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. 
He is usually represented as an effeminate youth, crowned 
with ivy and vine leaves. 

BELLONA, the Roman goddess of war, and companion of 
Mars. She is usually described as his wife, and repre- 
sented armed with a scourge, to animate the combatants. 

CUPIDO or AMOR ("Epcoj), the god of love ; the son of Venus 
and Zeus (some relate of Mars and Mercury). He is 
usually represented as carrying a bow and arrows, which 
he darts into the bosoms of gods and men. 

FAUNI, rural deities, represented as half men and half goats. 

FLORA, the goddess of flowers among the Romans. 

FORTUNA (Tv%rj), daughter of Oceanus ; the goddess of for- 
tune. From her were derived riches and poverty, pleasures 
and misfortunes. The Romans paid great attention to this 
goddess, and had eight temples dedicated to her at Rome. 

FURI^E or DIR^E, called by the Greeks Erinyes ('Epwves) or 
Eumenides {Evfitvlbss), three goddesses sprung from Ge and 
the blood of Uranus, namely, Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megozra. 
They haunted the impious with remorse for their crimes. 

GE or G.ZEA (iSJ or Tata), also called by the Romans TELLUS 
and TERRA, was the personification of the earth, and as 
such was worshipped by the ancients as a deity. 

GENIUS, the guardian or protecting spirit of each man's 
life. Such spirits were called by the Greeks dai/xovse, by 
the Romans Genii, and were regarded as the ministers of 
Zeus, and guardians of men and justice. Hesiod numbers 
the Dsemones at 30,000. 



72 MYTHOLOGY. 

GRATIS, the three goddesses presiding over all elegant arts 
and social enjoyments. They are generally represented 
dancing. Their names were Aglaia (splendour), Euphro- 
syne (joy), Thalia (pleasure). 

HADES or PLUTO ('Ai%), god of the {unseen or) nether 
world He is also known as Orcus, Tartarus, and Bis. 
The word Hades is also frequently used to designate the 
infernal regions. 

HEBE vel JUVENTAS, daughter of Jupiter and Juno ; the 
goddess of youth. She was for some time cup-bearer to 
the gods, to which office Ganymede succeeded; she was 
also employed by Juno in preparing her chariot, &c. She 
was supposed to have the power of making aged persons 
young again. 

HECATE, a Titan goddess, whose power extended over 
heaven, earth, and sea. Also a name for Diana or Pro- 
serpina. 

HELIOS, called SOL by the Romans, god of the sun; brother 
of Aurora. 

HORiE, daughters of Zeus and Themis. Originally the god- 
desses of the seasons, but in later times of order and justice. 
They were three in number, Eunomia (good order), DlkS 
(justice), Irene (peace). 

HYGIEA or HYGEA, the goddess of health ; daughter of 
iEsculapius. She is represented as a virgin, draped in a 
long robe, and feeding a serpent from a cup. 

HYMEN vel HYMEN^EUS, the god of marriage ; described 
by some as the son of Bacchus and Venus, by others as the 
son of Apollo and one of the Muses. 

IRIS, the goddess of the rainbow, and the messenger of the 
deities, particularly of Juno. 

ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, described as tho 
wife of Osiris ; goddess of the earth, and deity of the moon ; 
inventor of the cultivation of wheat and barley. 

JANUS, a Roman deity ; god of the temple of war. He is 
represented with two faces, sometimes with four heads. 
Numa dedicated a temple to Janus, open in times of war, 
and closed in times of peace. 



MYTHOLOGY. 73 

LARES, inferior gods at Home, who presided over houses and 
families, and were divided into Lares publici and Lares do- 
mestici ; all the latter were headed by the Lar familiaris, 
regarded as the founder of the family. Their images stood 
on the hearth, and offerings were made to them daily. 

LUNA or SELENE, daughter of Hyperion ; the goddess of 
the moon, identified afterwards with Diana. 

MANES, the general name for the souls of the departed. 
They were regarded as gods, and received divine honours. 

MOMUS, the god of pleasantry, wit, and satire ; driven from 
heaven by the gods for turning all their actions into ridicule. 

MORPHEUS, son of the deity Somnus, and god of dreams. 

MUSiE, goddesses who presided over poetry, &c. They were 
the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne (Memory), and 
nine in number : 1. Clio, the muse of History ; 2. Euterpe, 
of Lyric Poetry; 3. Thalia, of Comedy; 4. Melpomene, of 
Tragedy ; 5. Terpsichore, of Choral Dance ; 6. Erato, of 
Amatory Poetry; 7. Polyhymnia, of Rhetoric and Elo- 
quence; 8. Urania, of Astronomy; 9. Calliope, Epic Poetry. 
At the Olympian banquets they sang to Apollo's lyre. 
Their favourite haunts were the hills Pindus, Helicon, and 
Parnassus. 

NEMESIS, daughter of Nox, goddess of vengeance, and 
always prepared to punish the wicked and reward the good. 

NEREUS, a deity of the sea, and father of the fifty Nereides. 
He* is represented as an old man, and described as the wise 
old man of the sea, at the bottom of which he dwelt. 

NYMPH^E, a numerous class of female deities, generally 
divided into two classes, viz. land and water nymphs. The 
chief land nymphs were : 1st, Oreades, of the mountains 
and grottoes; 2d, Napoeae, of the forests, glens, and groves; 
3d, Dryades and Hamadryades, of the woods and trees. 
The chief water nymphs were: 1st, Oceanldes, or ocean 
nymphs, three thousand in number ; 2d, Nereides, or sea 
nymphs, fifty in number (among them we find Amphitrite, 
Thetis, and Galatea) ; 3d, Naiades, a general name for 
those nymphs presiding over either rivers, lakes, brooks, 
or springs ; 4th, Potameldes, or river nymphs. 



74 MYTHOLOGY. 

OCEANUS, the god of water ; son of Uranus and Ge ; repre- 
sented as an old man, sitting on the waves of the sea. 

OSIRIS, a great Egyptian divinity, husband of Isis, and god 
of the Nile. lie taught the use of the plough, and is some- 
times represented as the deity of the sun. 

PALES, the divinity of sheep-folds and pastures among the 
Romans. 

Px\N, the god of shepherds ; son of Hermes. He was usually 
represented as a monster with two small horns on his head, 
ruddy complexion, flat nose, and with the legs, tail, and 
feet of a goat. He resided chiefly in Arcadia, and is said 
to have invented the pipe with seven reeds, called Syrinx, 
from a nymph of that name whom he loved. 

PAX, the Roman goddess of peace ; daughter of Zeus and 
Themis, 

PENATES, the household gods of the Romans, called Penates 
from being placed in the innermost part (in penitissima 
parte) of the house ; they were generally made of wax, 
ivory, silver, or clay. 

PIICEBE, a name given to Diana as goddess of the moon 
(Luna) ; Apollo, her brother, being surnamed Phoebus, 
god .of the sun. 

PHCEBUS, expressive of brightness, a surname given to 
Apollo as god of the sun. 

PLUTO, the son of Saturn and Rhea ; god of the infernal 
regions. He is described as gloomy and inexorable ; on 
which account, as none of the goddesses would marry him, 
he bore off Proserpine by force. He is also known as 
Orcus, Hades, Dis, &c. 

PLUTUS, son of Ceres and Iasion ; the god of wealth. Jupiter 
is said to have deprived him of sight, that he might not 
bestow his gifts on the righteous alone. 

POMONA, the goddess of fruits among the Romans. 

PRIAPUS, a deity who presided over gardens, and was wor- 
shipped as a protector of flocks, goats, bees, and fishing. 

PROSERPINA vel PERSEPHONE, daughter of Jupiter and 
Ceres, and wife of Pluto as queen of the lower world. She 
presided over the death of mankind. 



MYTHOLOGY. it) 

PROTEUS, a sea deity (the prophetic old man of the sea), 
remarkable for his custom of assuming different forms 
-when consulted. He is described as a subject of Neptune, 
whose flocks (the seals) he tended. 

PARC^E vel MOIR^E, the Fates, powerful goddesses, who 
presided over the life and death of mankind. They were 
three in number, viz. : Clotho, or the spinning fate, who 
presided at the birth; Lachesis, who spun out all the events 
of each man's life, and assigned his lot or fate ; Atropos, 
the inflexible fate that cannot be avoided, who cut the 
thread of life. 

SATURNUS (Kpoi'os), a son of Ccelus and Uranus, and the 
father of Jupiter. As the god of time he is represented as 
an old man, holding a scythe in his right hand. 

SILENUS, a rural deity; an attendant on Bacchus. Usually 
represented in a state of intoxication, and never seen with- 
out his wine-bag. 

SILVANUS, a Roman deity, who presided over the woods 
and forests. 

THEMIS, daughter of Uranus and Ge ; the mother of Astraea, 
Irene, the Parcce, &c, &c. She is the personification of 
Law and Equity. 

THETIS, one of the sea deities or Nereides (daughters of 
Nereus), and the mother of Achilles. 

URANUS, CCELUS, or HEAVEN, a Titan; the most ancient 
of all the gods ; father of Saturn, Oceanus, &c. 

VERTUMNUS, the Roman deity who presided over plants 
and flowers. 



HEROES, MYTHICAL PERSONS, &c. 

ACHERON, a river of the lower world, over which the dead 
were first conveyed : the word is sometimes used to desig- 
nate the whole of the infernal regions. 

ADMETUS, son of Pheres and Periclymene, king of Pherse, 
iD Thessaly, husband of Alcestis, and one of the Argonauts. 



76 MYTHOLOGY. 

ADONIS, a beautiful youth, the favourite of Venus ; at his 
death she transformed him into the flower called Ane- 
mone. 

iEACUS, son of Zeus and JEgina : he was so famed through- 
out Greece for his justice and piety, that he was called 
upon to settle the disputes not only of men, but sometimes 
of the gods ; on his death he became one of the thre« 
judges in Hades. 

JEGJEON (vide Briareus). 

ALCESTIS, daughter of Pelias, and wife of Admetus, who, 
having on the day of his marriage neglected to sacrifice 
to Artemis, Apollo reconciled the offended goddess, and 
induced the Fates to deliver Admetus from death, if his 
father, mother, or wife, would die for him ; Alcestis died 
in his stead, but was brought back from the lower world 
by Hercules. 

AMAZONES, a nation of female warriors, said to have come 
from the Caucasus, and settled near the river Thermodon, 
in Pontus ; Hippolyte was their queen. 

ARIADNE, daughter of Minos and Creta ; she fell in love 
with Theseus, who married her, but afterwards forsook her. 

ATLAS, one of the Titans, who is generally represented as 
supporting the world on his shoulders ; which task was 
allotted him in consequence of his having, with the other 
Titans, made war upon Zeus (vide Titanes). 

BELLEROPHON, son of Glaucus a Corinthian king. To be 
purified from the murder of his brother Bellerus, he fled to 
Prcetus, king of Argos, by whom he was sent to Iobates, 
king of Lycia, his father-in-law, who ordered him to slay 
the monster Chimaera, thinking he would perish in the 
contest; but Bellerophon, having obtained the aid of Pe- 
gasus, the winged horse, conquered the Chimsera : he was 
also sent against the Amazons, and encountered the bravest 
of the Lycians, always returning victorious. Iobates, see- 
ing it was hopeless to kill the hero, made him his successor, 
and gave him his daughter in marriage. Some relate that 
Bellerophon attempted to fly to heaven on Pegasus, but 
Zeus sent a gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw off the 



MYTHOLOGY. 77 

rider, who became lame or blind, and wandered about the 
earth till the day of his death. 

BRIAREUS vel vEGEON, a famous giant, who had 100 
hands and fifty heads, called by men iEgaeon, and only by 
the gods Briareus. He is said to have conquered the 
Titans, when they made war on the gods. 

CALYPSO, one of the ocean nymphs who dwelt in the 
mythical island of Ogygia, on which Ulysses was ship- 
wrecked. 

CASTOR, son of Jupiter and brother of Pollux, distinguished 
for his skill and management of horses. Castor and his 
brother enjoyed immortality, and were called the Dioscuri. 

CENTAURI, a race inhabiting Mount Pelion, in Thessaly, 
represented as half men and half horses ; Chiron was the 
most celebrated of the Centaurs (vide Pirithous). 

CERBERUS, the dog of Pluto : he guarded the entrance to 
Hades, and is said by some to have had fifty heads, by 
others only three; his den was near the spot where Charon 
landed the dead. 

CHARON, a son of Erebus (darkness) : he conducted the 
souls of the departed in a boat over the rivers Acheron 
and Styx to the lower regions, for an obolus (about l%d.) ; 
as all the dead were obliged to pay, a small coin was 
usually placed in the mouth of the deceased. 

CHIRON, the most celebrated of the Centaurs : he lived on 
Mt. Pelion, and was famed for his knowledge of hunting, 
medicine, music, and prophecy ; he instructed the chief 
heroes of his age, namely, Hercules, Jason, Achilles, Pe- 
leus, &c, and was wounded accidentally in the knee by a 
poisoned arrow shot by Hercules in his contest with the 
Centaurs. After his death, Chiron was placed among the 
constellations by Zeus. 

CIRCE, a mythical sorceress, daughter of Sol and Perseus, 
celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venomous 
herbs. 

COCYTUS, a river in Epirus, and tributary of the Acheron , 
it was supposed to be connected with the lower world, and 
hencft was described as one of the five rivers of hell. 



78 MYTHOLOGY. 

CYCLOPES, a race of men of gigantic stature ; they had but 
one circular eye in the centre of their forehead, whence 
the name Kvx"ku>Tts<; ; they were three in number according 
to Hesiod, and called Arges, Brontes, and Steropes ; but 
this number was afterwards increased. 

DiEDALUS, the most ingenious artist of his time: he in- 
vented sails for ships, and made wings with wax and 
feathers for himself and son Icarus ; with these they toot 
flight from Crete : but the heat of the sun melted the wa* 
on the wings of Icarus, and he fell into the part of th* 
ocean called after him the Icarian Sea. 

DAPHNE, daughter of the river-god Peneus in Thessaly, o^ 
Ladon in Arcadia : she was much beloved by Apollo, and 
fearful of being caught by him, was changed into a laurel 
tree, which thence became the favourite tree of Apollo. 

DEUCALION, son of Prometheus, and king of Phthia in 
Thessaly, saved with his wife Pyrrha, on account of theiff 
piety, when Zeus destroyed by a flood the race of men. 
On the waters subsiding, Deucalion and Pyrrha offered a 
sacrifice, and consulted the oracle of Themis how the 
human race might be restored ; the oracle ordered them to 
cast behind them the bones of their mother, which they 
interpreting to be the Earth, threw stones behind their 
backs, when those thrown by Deucalion turned into men, 
and those by Pyrrha into women. 

ELYSIUM, a place in the lower world, the abode of the vir- 
tuous after death: the Elysian regions are placed by some 
in the middle region of the air or ocean ; by others in the 
moon and sun ; and by others in the centre of the earth, 
near Tartarus. 

ENDYMION, a youth celebrated for his beauty and per- 
petual sleep. 

EREBUS (signifying darkness), a deity of hell ; the word is 
applied to the gloomy regions, the abode of the wicked as 
well as of the good, and is distinguished both from Tar- 
tarus and Elysium. 

EUROPA, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia: her beauty 
captivated Zeus, who, taking the form of a bull, mingled 



MYTHOLOGY. 79 

with the herd of Agenor ; when Europa, encouraged by 
the tameness of the animal, mounted his back, whereupon 
Zeus rushed into the sea and swam with her in safety to 
Crete, where she became the mother of Minos, Rhadaman- 
thus, and Sarpedon. 

GIGANTES. the giants, sons of heaven and earth, a savage 
race, destroyed on account of their insolence to the gods. 

GORGONES, three celebrated sisters, daughters of Phorcyf 
the sea deity ; their names were Stheno, Euryale, and Me- 
dusa; they were frightful creatures, and instead of hail 
their heads were covered with serpents ; they had wings, 
brazen claws, and enormous teeth. Perseus slew Medusa, 
whose head was placed in the centre of Minerva's shield, 
and had the power of turning all that looked at it into stone. 

HARPYIiE, winged monsters, with the face of a woman and 
body of a vulture ; they were three in number, Aetto, Ce- 
Iceno, and Ocypete. 

HERACLYDiE, a name given to the descendants of Her- 
cules, who, with the Dorians, conquered the Peloponnesus 
(b.c. 1104). 

HERCULES, the most celebrated hero of antiquity: he was 
the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and born at Thebes. 
Juno early plotted his destruction, and her cruelty ren- 
dered him subject to the will of Eurystheus, king of My- 
cenae, who imposed on him twelve labours (vide infra). 
His first exploit previous to entering the service of Eurys- 
theus, was killing the enormous lion which destroyed the 
flocks of Amphitryon and of Thespius, king of Thespias : 
the gods, charmed with the bravery of Hercules, presented 
him with a complete suit of armour ; Jupiter gave a shield, 
Apollo a bow and arrows, Mercury a sword, Vulcan a 
golden cuirass and a club of brass, and Minerva a coat of 
mail. 

ITESPERIDES, the celebrated guardians of the golden apples, 
which Ge gave to Juno on the day of her marriage with 
Jupiter : they were called the daughters of Atlas and Hes- 
peris, whence their name ; th^y resided near Mount Atlas, 
in Africa. 



80 MYTHOLOGY 

HIPPOLYTE, daughter of Mars, queen of the Amazones ; 
she wore a girdle given her by her father, which was taken 
from her by Hercules (vide 9th labour). 

HYPERION, a Titan, son of Uranus (heaven) and Ge (earth), 
(father of Helios) the sun. 

HYADES (i. e. the rainy), a name given to seven nymphs, 
who formed, with the Pleiades, the constellation known by 
that name. 

IAPETUS, one of the Titans ; being the father of Prometheus, 
he was regarded by the Greeks as the father of all mankind. 

10, the daughter of Inachus, king of Argos. Hera being 
jealous of her, Zeus changed her into a white heifer: Hera 
then sent the hundred-eyed Argus to watch her ; but he 
being slain by Hermes, the goddess persecuted her with a 
gad-fly; she swam across the Thracian Bosporus (hence its 
name Ox-ford), and, after wandering over the earth, gave 
birth to Epaphus, on the banks of the Nile. 

IXION, king of the Lapithge, and father of Pirithous. He 
treacherously murdered his father-in-law, Deioneus, and 
having proved ungrateful to Zeus, who had purified him, 
the god condemned him to be tied to a wheel which per- 
petually revolved in Hades. 

JASON, the celebrated leader of the Argonautae, in the expe- 
dition to Colchis ; he was the son of iEson and Alcimede, 
and brought up by the Centaur Chiron (vide Argonautic 
Expedition). 

LAPITHiE, a savage race inhabiting the mountains of Thes- 

saly ; Pirithous was their king (vide Pirithous). 
LATONA (Arjtu>), a Titaness, the mother of Apollo and 

Diana. 
LEDA, daughter of Thestius, and wife of Tyndarus, king 
of Sparta ; she was the mother of Helena by Zeus, who 
visited her in the form of a swan. 
LETHE, a river in the lower world, whose waters, if the 
souls. of the dead drank, had the power of making them 
forget all they had done before (derivation %rfiq, oblivion). 
MAIA, daughter of Atlas, and one of the Pleiades, the most 
luminous of the seven sisters. 



MYTHOLOGY. 81 

MEDEA, daughter of iEetes, king of Colchis, celebrated for 
her skill in music ; she fell in love with Jason, and assisted 
him in obtaining the golden fleece (vide Argonautic Expe- 
dition). 

MINOS, son of Zeus and Europa, brother of Rhadamantlus 
and the king and legislator of Crete. On his death, Minos 
became one of the judges of the lower world. 

NARCISSUS, a beautiful youth, changed into the flowei 
which bears his name. 

NIOBE, daughter of Tantalus, sister of Pelops, and wife of 
Amphion : being the mother of seven sons and daughters, 
she considered herself superior to Latona, who had borne 
only two ; for this conduct, her children were slain by 
Apollo and Diana, she herself being turned into stone. 

ORION, a celebrated giant, sprung from Jupiter, Neptune, 
and Mercury ; after his death, Orion was placed among 
the constellations. 

ORPHEUS, one of the Argonauts, supposed to be a son of 
Apollo, and regarded by the Greeks as the most celebrated 
of the early poets. His skill on the lyre was such that he 
charmed even Cerberus and the inhabitants of Hades, when 
he went thither to recover his wife Eurydice, whom he lost 
by looking back upon before they had regained the earth. 

PANDORA (rtoH^wpa), a woman so named from having re- 
ceived every necessary gift: from Venus, beauty; from 
Mercury, eloquence ; and from Minerva, splendid orna- 
ments. Pandora was the first woman on earth, and made 
by Vulcan from clay, by order of Jupiter, who might, by 
her charms, bring woes upon the earth, because Prome- 
theus had stolen fire from heaven. She was married to 
Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus : in his house was a 
jar or box, which he had been forbidden to open ; but 
Pandora's curiosity could not resist the temptation, and as 
soon as it was opened all the evils incident to man escaped, 
Hope alone being left. Others relate that it was ajar, not 
a box, which Pandora brought from heaven. 

PEGASUS, a celebrated winged horse (sprung from the blood 
of Medusa, me of the Gorgons, when Perseus cut off her 



82 MYTHOLOGY. 

head) : he is described as the thunder-bearer of Jupiter ; 
"but by later writers as the horse of Aurora. 

PERSEUS, a famous hero, son of Jupiter and Danae, and 
husband of Andromeda ; he is said to have founded My- 
cenae (vide Gorgones). 

PHAETHON (i. e. the shining), a surname of Sol, commonly 
known as a son of Sol by one of the Oceanides : he was 
killed by Zeus with lightning, for his attempt to drive the 
chariot of the sun across the heavens. 

PHLEGETHON, a river of hell, in which fire flowed instead 
of water. 

PIEMDES, a name given to the Muses, derived from Pieria, 
in Thessaly, where they were first worshipped. 

PIRITHOUS, a hero worshipped at Athens, and king of the 
Lapithse, in Thessaly : at his marriage with Hippodamla 
the Centaur Eurytion carried her off; which occasioned 
the war between the Lapithse and Censtaurs, in which the 
latter were defeated. 

PLEIADES, a name given to the seven daughters of Atlas — 
Elect ra, Mala, Tdygete, Alcyone, Celceno, Sterope, Merope. 

POLLUX, son of Jupiter and Leda, and brother of Castor, 
famed for his skill in boxing (vide Castor). 

POLYPHEMUS, son of Neptune, a celebrated Cyclops, who 
fed on human flesh, and kept his flocks on the coast of 
Sicily. 

PROMETHEUS (the Forethinker), the son of Iapetus, one of 
the Titans. Jupiter, to punish him and the rest of man- 
kind, deprived the earth of fire ; but Prometheus stole it 
from heaven, for which Zeus chained him on Mount Cau- 
casus, where an eagle preyed on his liver for ages : it was 
ultimately slain by Hercules. 

PSYCHE ("Vvxri), signifying " the soul," a nymph whom 
Cupid married : Venus for a time imposed on her the most 
unpleasant labours, which well-nigh killed her: but Ju- 
piter, at Cupid's request, conferred on her immortality. 

PYTHON, a celebrated serpent, lived in the caves of Mount 
Parnassus, and was slain by Apollo, who, in commemora- 
tion of his victory, founded the Pythian games. 



MYTHOLOGY. 83 

RIIADAMANTHUS, son of Zeus and Europa, and brother 
of Minos, king of Crete, from wham he fled to Boeotia, and 
married Alcmene. From his justice throughout life, he 
became after death one of the judges of hell. 

RHEA, OPS or CYBELE, daughter of Coelus and Terra, wife 
of Saturn, and mother of Jupiter and the gods. 

SATYRI, the name of a class of demigods, attendants on 
Bacchus, represented with the legs and feet of a goat, 
short horns, bristly hair, and pointed ears ; the elder Satyrs 
were called Sileni. * 

SIRENES, sea nymphs, who had the power of charming by 
their songs all who heard them : they are usually stated to 
have been three in number, the daughters of Phoroys, a 
sea deity. Ulysses, when sailing near their* abode, stopped 
the ears of his companions with wax, and tied himself to 
the mast, to avoid being charmed by their songs, and thus 
delayed. 

SPIIYNX, a monster who had the head and breasts of a 
woman, body of a dog, tail of a serpent, wings of a bird, 
paws of a lion, and a human voice. 

STYX, one of the rivers of hell, round which it was said to 
flow nine times: it was held in such veneration by the 
gods, that they took oaths by it ; and Zeus caused those 
who swore falsely to drink of it, which had the effect of 
stupefying them for a year. 

TARTARUS, one of the regions of Hades or hell, where the 
most impious of men were punished. The principal cri- 
minals were, 1. Tityus, slain by Apollo and Diana for 
his conduct to their mother, Latona ; in Tartarus his body 
covered nine acres of land, and a vulture preyed, without 
ceasing, on his liver. 2. Ixion, fixed by Zeus on a revolv- 
ing wheel for having aspired to the love of Juno. 3. Tan- 
talus, who, for having, at an entertainment given by him 
to the gods, served up the flesh of his son Pelops, was 
punished with insatiable thirst; he is represented as placed 
up to the chin in a pool of water, which flowed away when- 
ever he attempted to taste it. 4. Sisyphus, a son of 
iEolus, and king of Corinth ; he is said to have greatly 



84 MYTHOLOGY. 

promoted navigation and commerce ; but his wickedness 
was great, and as a punishment for his crimes, he was 
condemned in hell to roll to the top of a hill a large 
stone, which no sooner reached the summit than it rolled 
down again into the plain. 5. The Dan aides, forty-nine 
maidens, who, for stabbing their husbands, the sons of 
iEgyptus, on their wedding-night, were sentenced to iJ 11 a 
perforated tub with water. Hypermnestra, the fiftieth, 
spared the life of her husband, Lynceus. 

TITANES, children of Uranus and'Ge: they were twelve in 
number, six sons and six daughters, viz. Oceanus, Ceus, 
Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronus: Thea, Rhea, Themis, 
Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys. Zeus and his brothers re- 
belled and waged war against Saturn and the Titans : this 
contest was carried on for ten years, Saturn's party fighting 
from Mount Othrys, Jupiter's from Mount Olympus; at 
length Jupiter released the Hecaton-Cheires (the hundred- 
handed), the Titans were defeated and confined in Tar- 
tarus. The name Titanes is also given to the descendants 
of the Titans. 

TRITON, a son of Neptune and Amphitrite: he is repre- 
sented riding over the sea on horses or sea-monsters, hold- 
ing a trumpet made out of a shell (concha). 

TYPHON, a monstrous giant, described as having a hundred 
heads, and vomiting flame. He was no sooner born, than 
he made war against the gods, who were so terrified that 
they assumed different shapes, Jupiter a ram, &c. ; eventu- 
ally, Typhon was crushed by a thunderbolt from Jupiter, 
and placed under Mount iEtna 



EAKLY GKECIAN LEGENDS. 



THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION. 

Athamas, a king of Boeotia, married Nephe'le, by whom he 
had two children, Phrixus and Helle. On the death of his 
wife, Athamas married Ino, whose jealousy of her step-chil- 
dren induced her to destroy them ; they, however, contrived 
to escape, and attempted to cross the sea to Colchis, on the 
back of a golden-fleeced ram, given by Hermes. Helle, being 
unable to keep her seat, was drowned in the strait called 
from her the Hellespont. Phrixus, having reached Col- 
chis in safety, offered up the ram to Zeus, and presented the 
fleece to King Metes, who had received him kindly; the 
fleece was nailed to an oak in the sacred grove of Mars, and 
guarded by a dragon. 

Jason, son of iEson, king of Iolcos, in Thessaly, undertook 
to recover this fleece. He gave orders to Argus, a son of 
Phrixus (who was assisted by Minerva), to build a vessel of 
fifty oars; the ship was named " Argo," from the builder, and 
those who went on the expedition " Argonautas" (i.e. "sailors 
of the Argo"). Jason was accompanied by the most re- 
nowned heroes of the time, to the number of fifty ; among 
whom were Hercules, Theseus, Pirithous, Castor and 
Pollux, Telamon, Peleus, Admetus, Oileus, Neleus, 
Laertes, Mencetius, Orpheus the minstrel, Mopsus the 
seer, iEsculapius the physician, Tiphys the pilot. After 
various adventures, the Argo entered the river Phasis, in 
Colchis, the heroes landed, and Jason immediately informed 
the king of his mission ; the monarch consented to his taking 
the fleece, provided he performed the necessary conditions, 
8 (85) 



86 EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES. 

viz., ploughing a piece of land with the brazen-footed bulla 
of Vulcan, sowing it with the teeth of the dragon slain by 
Cadmus, and destroying the armed crop which would spring 
up. Medea, the king's daughter, fell in love with Jason, 
and with her assistance he obtained the golden fleece, and 
left the country, accompanied by Medea. iEetes, finding 
that Jason had departed, and taken his daughter, got on 
shipboard, and pursued ; but, to detain him, Medea murdered 
her brother Absyrtus, and cut him in pieces, so that, while 
her father was collecting the scattered limbs, the Argo 
escaped, and eventually arrived in safety at Iolcos. 



EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES. 

Thebes, the Capital of Boeotia, is said to have been founded 
(c. b.c. 1500) by CADMUS, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. 
According to the legend, Cadmus, failing to find his sister 
Europa, who had been carried off by Zeus, settled in Thrace, 
and being ordered by the Delphic Oracle to build a town 
where a cow, which he was to follow, should sink down with 
fatigue, he founded Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes. He 
also there killed a dragon which guarded a well of Ares, 
and, by the instruction of Athena, sowed its teeth, from 
which armed men, called Sparti (i. e. sown), sprung up and 
slew each other, except five, who became the ancestors of the 
Thebans. 

Cadmus was succeeded by his son Polydorus, who was 
in turn succeeded by his son Labdacus. He was the father 
of Lai us, the next king, who had a son, CEdipus, by Jo- 
cast a, the daughter of Menoeceus and sister of Creon. 

STORY OF GEDIPUS, AND OF THE WAR OF 
THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. 

An Oracle having foretold that Laius should be slain by 
his son, (Edipus was exposed at his birth on Mt. Cithaercn, 



THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. 87 

but was found by a shepherd, who (from his feet being 
pierced through) gave him the name of Ol8inovi (i. e. swollen- 
footed), and brought him to his master, Poly bus, king of 
Corinth, and husband of Merope or Periboea, and by 
whom (Edipus was brought up. On attaining manhood, his 
birthright being called in question, (Edipus consulted the 
Delphic Oracle, which replied that he was destined to slay 
his father and marry his mother. Soon afterwards, near 
Daulis, he met his father in a chariot, and, refusing to make 
way for him, was struck by Laius, whom he killed, together 
with the slight escort which attended the chariot. Purposely 
avoiding Corinth, he arrived at Thebes, where he foiled the 
Sphynx, a monster who used to murder all those who were 
unable to solve the riddles which she put to them. (Edipus 
having explained the riddle of the being with four, two, and 
three feet, to mean man crawling in infancy, walking in man- 
hood, and leaning on a staff in old age, the monster was so 
enraged at the solution, that she threw herself down from 
the rock on which she was seated. The Thebans, according 
to their promise, rewarded (Edipus with the hand of their 
queen, Jo cast a, by whom he became the father as well aa 
brother of Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene. 
In consequence of his marriage a plague was sent, and Creon 
brought back word from Delphi that the murderer of Laius 
must be banished. Tire si as, the blind seer, forced by 
(Edipus, revealed to him his crimes ; whereupon Jocasta 
hung herself, and (Edipus put out his own eyes, was expelled 
by his sons, and wandered an outcast, under the guidance of 
his daughter Antigone, to Colonos, in Attica, where he 
died. Eteocles having violated the agreement with Polynices 
to reign in turns, the latter fled to Adrastus, king of Argos, 
married his daughter Argla, and persuaded her father to 
assist him against Eteocles. Polynices, accompanied by 
Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippo- 
medon, and Parthenopasus, advanced against Thebes, 
and each assailed one of its seven gates ; but were all slain 
except Adrastus ; Eteocles and Polynices falling by each 
other's hands. Antigone performed the rites of burial over 



88 EARLY KINGS OF TROY. 

Polynices, in defiance of the orders of Creon (who was regent 
for Lao dam as, son of Eteocles), and was buried alive by her 
uncle's command; whereupon Haemon, her lover, son of 
Creon, slew himself in despair. Ten years after the war of 
the "Seven against Thebes," the descendants fE;ttyoi>oc) of 
the heroes stormed Thebes, and razed it to the ground. 



EARLY KINGS OF TROY. 

1. TEUCER (c. B.C. 1400?), hence the Trojans were called 
Teucri. His daughter Batea married — 2. DARDANUS, who 
came from Arcadia and Samothrace, and built Dardania, 
hence the name Dardanelles. 3. ERICTHONIUS, his son, 
was the wealthiest of mortals, and was succeeded by his son 
— 4. TROS, hence Troja, Troy; he was the father, by Cal- 
lirhoe, of — 5. ILUS, after whom Troy was called Ilium. 
The brothers of Ilus were Assaracus (grandfather of 
iEneas) and Ganymede s, who was carried off by Zeus to be 
his cup-bearer, in place of Hebe. Tros was compensated for 
his loss by a present of horses. Zeus also gave Ilus the 
Palladium, or image of Pallas, with the promise that, as 
long as it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 6. 
LAOMEDON, son of Ilus, and husband of Strymo. Jupiter 
condemned Neptune and Apollo to serve him for a year ; the 
former built the walls of his city, the latter became his shep- 
herd. Upon his insolently refusing them their wages, Nep- 
tune sent a sea-monster to ravage the country. He si one, 
the daughter of Laomedon, was chosen by lot as a sacrifice 
to appease this scourge ; but Hercules came to her assistance, 
and offered to save her if the king would give him the horses 
of Zeus. After Hercules had slain the monster, Laomedon 
refused to fulfil the conditions he had agreed to ; the hero 
therefore slew him and all his sons, except Priam, whom 
Hesione ransomed with her veil. 7. PRIAM (i. e. ransomed, 
itplaiwx), originally called Podarces, married Hecuba, by 
whom he had Hector, Paris, Helenus, DeiphSbus, 



LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. 89 

Polydorus, Troilus, also Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, 
Cassandra, and other children. At the taking of Troy, he 
was slain by Pyrrhus at the altar of Zeus, before which his 
son Polite s had just fallen by the same hand. 



LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. 

b.c. 1194 — b.c. 1184. 

To the marriage of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, in 
Thessaly, and Thetis, parents of Achilles, all the deities 
were invited, except the Goddess of Discord ( v Epc$), who, in 
revenge, threw among the guests a golden apple, inscribed 
" To the fairest." Juno, Venus, and Minerva each claim- 
ing it, Jupiter referred the decision to Paris, also called 
Alexander, a son of Priam, and at that time a shepherd on 
Mt. Gargarus (a part of Mt. Ida), on which he had been 
exposed at his birth, owing to his mother Hecuba having 
dreamed that she had brought forth a firebrand, which 
should devastate Troy. Paris, at the risk of drawing down 
on himself and on his country the resentment of the two 
other goddesses, awarded the apple to Venus, who had pro- 
mised him the most beautiful woman for his wife. This was 
Helen, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and wife of Mene- 
laus, king of Sparta, whence Paris carried her off, together 
with the treasures of her husband. Upon the commission of 
this outrage, the various Grecian chieftains, who had been 
suitors of Helen, collected at Aulis, in Bceotia, an army of 
about 100,000 men, and a fleet of 1186 ships, and placed 
them under the command of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, 
brother to Menelaus, and the most powerful of the Greeks. 
Before, however, the expedition started, Menelaus and Ulysses 
attempted a fruitless negotiation at Troy. Agamemnon hav- 
ing, at Aulis, killed a stag sacred to Diana, a pestilence was 
sent on his followers, and a calm detained their vessels. 
Calchas (the son of Thestor) the Grecian soothsayer, ordered 
him to appease the anger of the goddess by sacrificing his 
8* 



90 LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. 

daughter Iphigema. Diana, however, substituted a stag as a 
victim, and carried off Iphigema to be her priestess at Tau- 
ris, where she subsequently delivered her brother Orestes, 
when he was on the point of being sacrificed to Diana. 

The Greeks, on their arrival at Troy, drew their ships on 
shore, and surrounded them with a fortification ; but being 
unable to take the city, they blockaded it, and ravaged the 
neighbouring country. Among the spoils of Chrysa (one of 
the captured cities) was Chryseis, who fell to the lot of 
Agamemnon. On his refusing to release her, Chryses, her 
father, obtained from Apollo, whose priest he was, the inflic- 
tion of a pestilence on the Greeks. Calchas having declared 
the cause of the plague, Chryseis was released, and Aga- 
memnon consoled himself by taking away B rise is from 
Achilles, into whose hands she had fallen at the capture of 
Lyrnessus. Achilles, being deeply enraged, refused to take 
any further part in the war ; at last, finding that the Greeks, 
from being deprived of his aid, were worsted, and even their 
ships assailed with fire, he permitted his friend Patroclus 
to put on his armour, and lead his Myrmidons to the fight. 
Patroclus was slain by Hector; and Achilles, in consequence, 
roused by grief and resentment, and being furnished by his 
mother with fresh armour, forged by Vulcan, rescued his 
friend's dead body, and burnt it. He then pursued Hector 
thrice round the walls of Troy, slew him, tied him to his 
chariot, and dragged him to the ships. 

The aged Priam ransomed in person his son's corpse, and 
buried it: with this event, the subject of the Iliad of Homer 
closes. The same poem also relates several single combats 
between the various heroes, in which the gods and goddesses 
often take part; Juno, Minerva, Neptune, Mercury, 
and Vulcan, espousing the side of the Greeks, while Mars, 
Phoerbus, Diana, Venus, and Latona, aid the Trojans. 
Homer also gives an account of the slaughter, by Ulysses 
and Diomedes, of Rhesus, king of Thrace, and the carrying 
off his snow-white horses before they drank of the Xanthus, 
And fed on the Trojan plains; which had they done, Troy, ac- 
cording to a prediction of an oracle, could not have been taken. 



GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 91 

Helenus (son of Priam), who had deserted from tho 
Trojans, having foretold that the presence of Pyrrhus or 
Neoptolemus (son of Achilles and Deidamia) and Phi- 
loctetes was necessary for the success of the Greeks, thft 
former was brought by Ulysses from the court of his grand 
father, Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; and afterwards eitho 
he or Diomedes aided Ulysses in bringing Phiioctete*, 
who had been bitten by a serpent nine years previously, and 
left behind at Lemnos by the Greeks, on their way to Troy. 
Philoctetes, being cured on his arrival, employed against the 
Trojans the arrows Hercules had given him, and mortally 
wounded Paris. The carrying off the Palladium from 
Troy is ascribed to Diomedes and Ulysses ; and the latter 
hero has also the credit of contriving the huge wooden horse 
(constructed by Epeus, with the aid of Minerva), which 
Sinon, a pretended deserter, persuaded the Trojans had been 
left by the Greeks, on their departure for the Peloponnesus, 
as an atonement for carrying off the Palladium, and made of 
a large size, in order that it might not be drawn into the city. 
Notwithstanding the opposition of Lao coon (who, with his 
two sons, was killed by serpents sent by Pallas), the in- 
fatuated Trojans drag the horse within their walls, and 
Sinon by night releases the Greeks who had been concealed 
in it. Meanwhile the Grecian army, which Lad retired only 
to Tenedos, arrives, and the ill-fated city is sacked and burnt. 
iEneas, however, escapes, with his father, son, and house- 
hold gods (his wife, Creusa, being parted from him in the 
confusion) ; and, after many adventures, he reaches Italy, 
and founds Lavinium. 



GRECIAN HEROES, &c, CONNECTED WITH 
THE TROJAN WAR. 

ACHILLES, son of Peleus and Thetis ; leader of the Myrmi- 
dons from Piithiotis, in ThesfcdJy. His mother gave him 
the choice between a long but inglorious life, and one of 



92 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 

renown and short duration ; the latter of which he chose. 
Thetis, knowing his fate, concealed him, when a child, 
among the daughters of Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; but 
Ulysses discovered his place of concealment. He was re- 
luctantly led to the Trojan war, of which he was the chief 
hero, and, after exhibiting deeds of great prowess, he was 
slain in battle, at the Scsean Gate, before the capture of 
Troy ; but some say he was shot by Paris in the heel, the 
only part of his body which was vulnerable, Thetis having 
held him there when she dipped him in the Styx. 

AGAMEMNON, son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops, and 
commander-in-chief in the Trojan war. On his return to 
Mycenae, he was slain by his wife, Clytemnestra, daughter 
of Tyndarus, who had married JEgisthus in her husband's 
absence. Orestes, aided by his friend Pylades, avenged 
his father's death. 

AJAX, son of Olleus, king of the Locrians. On his return 
from the war, he was drowned by Neptune, for setting at 
nought the god's assistance during a shipwreck, in which 
his companions perished. Virgil relates that he was dashed 
on a rock by Minerva, in whose temple he had insulted 
Cassandra, at the capture of Troy. 

AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and inferior only to 
Achilles in bravery. Ulysses having defeated him in the 
contest for the armour of Achilles, he became mad, and 
slaughtered a flock of sheep, imagining them to be the 
Greeks ; on discovering his mistake, he committed suicide. 
By Tecmessa he had a son, Eurysaces, named after 
his father's broad shield. 

ANTILOCHUS, son of Nestor ; slain at Troy by Memnon, 
after many deeds of bravery. 

AUTOMEDON, charioteer and companion of Achilles, and 
afterwards of Pyrrhus. 

CALCHAS, the soothsayer who foretold the length of the 
Trojan war, and died of grief because Mopsus excelled him 
in his art. 

DIOMEDES or TYDIDES, son of Tydeus and Deipyle ; king 
of Argos. On his return from the war, finding his wife, 



GBECIAX HEROES, ETC. 93 

^Egialea, married to Hippolytus, he went to ^Etolia. As 
he was returning, a storm cast him on the coast of Daunia, 
in Apulia, where he is said to have founded several towns, 
Arpi, Beneventum, Brundusium, Yenusia, &o 

HELENA, daughter of Zeus and Leda. On the death of 
Paris, she married his brother, Deiphobus, but afterwards 
became reconciled to her former husband, Menelaus. 

EDOMENEUS, son of the Cretan Deucalion, king of Crete ; 
one of the bravest warriors on the side of the Greeks. It 
is said that he sacrificed his son (who first met him on his 
return) to Xeptune, owing to a rash vow he had made in a 
storm. 

LAODICE or ELECTRA. After the murder of her father, 
Agamemnon, she sent her brother, Orestes, to King Stro- 
phius, in Phocis, where he became intimate with Pylades, 
whom Electra married, after she had incited Orestes to 
avenge his father's death. 

MACHAOX, son of JEsculapius, and surgeon of the Greeks. 

MENELAUS, son of Atreus, and husband of Helen, by whom 
he had Hermione, wife of Xeoptolemus. 

MERIOXES, a brave warrior, who came with Idomeneus 
from Crete. 

XEOPTOLEMUS or PYRRHUS, son of Achilles; called 
Xeoptolemus (^05, rt(r)dte/wo$), because he came late to the 
Trojan tear, and Pyrrhus (rtvppoj), from the bright red colour 
of his hair. He was slain at Delphi. 

XESTOR, son of Xeleus, king of Pylos, in Elis, and the most 
venerable of the Greeks, by whom he was greatly respected 
for his wisdom, oratory, and skill in war. 

PATROCLUS, the intimate friend of Achilles. He was son 
of Mencetius, the brother of iEacus, who was grandfather 
to Achilles. 

PHILOCTETES, the best archer in the Trojan war. He was 
the friend of Hercules, who gave him his poisoned arrows, 
as a reward for setting fire to the pile on Mt. (Eta, on 
which Hercules burnt himself. 

PHCEXIX, son of Amyntor. He fled to Peleus, king of 



94 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 

Tnessaly, who made him ruler of the Dolopes, and tutoi 
of Achilles, whom he accompanied to the Trojan war. 

PYRRHUS. See Neoptolemus. 

STHENELUS, son of Capaneus, and friend of Diomedes. 

TALTHYBIUS, herald of Agamemnon. 

TEUCER, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, who refused tc 
receive him on his return from Troy, because he had not 
avenged his half-brother Ajax's death. Teucer sailed to 
Cyprus, and there founded a second Salamis. 

ULYSSES CObvaasvi), son of Anticlea and Laertes, king of 
Ithaca. To avoid going to the Trojan war, he feigned 
madness, by yoking an ox and an ass together, and plough- 
ing the sea-shore, which he sowed with salt. Palamedes 
detected him, by placirig his infant son, Telemachus, 
before the plough, which the father stopped. After he 
left Troy, he underwent a variety of adventures, which are 
related in Homer's " Odyssey." He blinded the Cyclops 
Polyphemus, who had devoured six of his companions. 
After encountering various dangers from the Sirens (vide 
Mythol.), from shipwreck, and at the islands of iEolus, 
iEea (inhabited by the sorceress Circe, who changed his 
associates into swine), Sicily, Ogygla (where he was de- 
tained by Calypso, vide Mythol.), and Scheria, he reached 
Ithaca. In the meantime, the hand of his wife, Penelope, 
had been sought by numerous suitors, whom she had de- 
clined answering till she should have finished a web or 
robe for Laertes ; this she contrived to delay, by undoing 
by night her day's work. At last Ulysses, after an absence 
of twenty years, arrived in the disguise of a beggar ; and, 
after vanquishing the suitors in drawing the bow of Eury- 
tus, he slew them, by the aid of Telemachus and Minerva, 
and was recognized by his wife and aged father. 



TROJAN HEROES, ETC. 95 



TROJAN HEROES, &c. 

ACESTES, son of the Sicilian river-god Crimlsus, and the 
Trojan Egesta or Segesta. He aided Priam in the Trojan 
war, and afterwards, together with Elynius (son of An- 
chises), hospitably received iEneas, who built the towns 
of iEgesta and Elyme, in Sicily. 

AENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, and one of the bravest 
of the Trojans. By his wife, Creusa (who was parted from 
him in the confusion at the taking of Troy), he had a son, 
Ascanius or lulus. After escaping from Troy, he wan- 
dered over the JEgean and Ionian Seas to Sicily, and La- 
tium, in Italy, where he married Lavinia, daughter of 
the king La tin us, and built Lavinium. Latinus and 
Turnus, king of the Rutuli, having fallen in battle, iEneas 
succeeded to their power, but was slain by Mezentius, 
king of the Rutuli. Virgil, by an anachronism, represents 
JEneas as visiting Dido, queen of Carthage, who fell in 
love with him, and burnt herself alive on his leaving her. 

ALEXANDER. See Paris, page 89. 

ANCHISES, father of iEneas by Venus. Having accom- 
panied his son after the fall of Troy, he died in Sicily, and 
was buried on Mt. Eryx. 

ANDROMACHE, daughter of Eetion (king of Thebes, in 
Cilicia), and wife of Hector, by whom she had Seaman- 
drius or Astyanax. At the capture of Troy, her son 
was thrown from the walls, and she became the prize of 
Pyrrhus, but afterwards married Helenus, king of Chaonia, 
in Epirus. 

ANTENOR, one of the wisest of the Trojans. He advised 
the surrender of Helen before the war began. After it 
was over, he is said to have founded Patavium {Padua), 
in Italy. 

CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam; loved by Apollo, who 
gave her the gift of prophecy ; but, on her offending the 
god, he caused her prophecies to be discredited. At the 
taking of Troy, she was insulted by Ajax, son of Oileus, 



yb TROJAN HEROES, ETC. 

in the temple of Minerva. She afterwards became the 
prize of Agamemnon, and was murdered, at Mycenae, by 
Clytemnestra. 

CORCEBUS, a Phrygian; son of Mygdon. He fought at 
Troy with the hope of marrying Cassandra, but was killed 
by Peneleus or by Pyrrhus. 

PEIPHOBUS, son of Priam, and, next to Hector, the bravest 
among the Trojans. On the death of Paris, he married 
Helen, and was slain by Menelaus at the capture of Troy. 

GLAUCUS, grandson of Bellerophon, a % Lycian ally of the 
Trojans, slain by Ajax. 

HECTOR, eldest son of Priam, the bravest of the Trojans, 
and husband of Andromache. He slew Patroclus, and 
he himself fell by the hand of Achilles. 

HECUBA, daughter of Dymas, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace, 
and wife of Priam. After the fall of Troy, she was taken 
by the Greeks to the Thracian Chersonesus, where, accord- 
ing to Euripides, her daughter, Polyxena, who had been 
beloved by Achilles, was taken from her by Ulysses, and 
sacrificed by Pyrrhus. On the same day, Hecuba also be- 
held the murdered corpse of her son, Polydorus, cast on 
the shore. He had been entrusted to the care of Poly ni- 
ne stor, king of the Chersonese, by whom he was mur- 
dered, for the sake of the riches he had brought with him. 
Hecuba, in revenge, enticed Polymnestor to come to her, 
under pretence of revealing some Trojan treasure, when 
she blinded him and slew his sons. 

HELENUS, son of Priam, gifted with prophecy ; he fell to 
the lot of Pyrrhus, after whose death he married Andro- 
mache. When iEneas came to Epirus, Helenus foretold 
his destinies. 

MEMNON, son of Tithonus and Aurora, an Ethiopian princej 
who came to the assistance of his paternal uncle, Priam, 
and was slain by Achilles. 

PANDARUS, a Lycian archer; slain by Sthenelus or Dio- 
medes. 

PARIS or ALEXANDER, son of Priam, vide page 89. 

PRIAM, vide page 88. 



TROJAN HEROES, ETC. 97 

SARPEDON, son of Zeus and Laodamia, a Lycian prince; 
renowned for his valour. He was slain by Patroclus. 
Apollo, by order of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon's body from 
blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, and entrusted it 
to Death and Sleep to carry into Lycia to be buried. 

TROILUS, son of Priam and Hecuba, or of Apollo ; slain by 
Achilles. 

Note. — After their death, many of the Grecian and Trojan war- 
riors were worshipped as heroes, and had various temples erected to 



GREEK ANTIQUITIES. 



THE INHABITANTS OF ATTICA were divided into 
three classes: I. Tlontai, or freemen; II. M&OLxot, or foreigners 
settled in the country ; III. Aoixot, or slaves. 

THE INHABITANTS OF SPARTA were divided into two 
classes : I. Srtapr iaia.i and Hspioixot,, town and provincial free- 
men ; II. EtWrsj, slaves. 

MAGISTRATES. 

The fornr of government at Athens was, as in »Aany states, 
frequently oiianged: it began with Monarchy, and, having 
passed through a Dynasty (in which the power was con- 
fined to one family) and Aristocracy, ended in Demo- 
cracy. Theseus may be called the first king, and Codrus 
the last, after whom (b.c. 1045) the Athenians elected the 

Archons, 

who were the chief magistrates at Athens, nine in number; 
their power was originally for life, but was afterwards limited 
to ten years, and latterly to one. The names and offices of 
these magistrates were distinct: the President was styled 
6 "Ap^wv or frtwj'Vjiioj^ from the year being called after, and 
registered in, his name; the second was called j5aaa.s uj ; the 
third, tto9J/j.apx°Si or commander-in-chief; and the remaining 
six, OsofAoOstcu, or legislators. 

The functions of the "Ap^uv were : 1. To provide for the 
celebration of the feasts, as the Dionysia, &c. ; 2. To settle 
disputes arising between neighbours and citizens, and to 
determine all causes between married people; 3. To take 

(93) 



MAGISTRATES. 99 

care of orphans, provide them tutors, and superintend their 
estates. 

The duties of the Bastteus were : 1. To superintend the fes- 
tivals, and especially the Eleusinia ; 2. To settle all disputes 
respecting the priesthood, and judge those accused of impiety. 

The duties of the Uo^i/xapxos were : 1. To celebrate rites in 
honour of Mars and Diana ; 2. To have under his care all 
foreigners and strangers, and settle actions brought against 
them ; 3. To superintend the wars, over which he had the 
chief command, and thence received his name. 

The functions of the (dsa/xodstac were connected with the 
administration of justice, such as, 1. Receiving indictments, 
bringing cases to trial, and appointing the day of sitting ; 
2. Annually revising the code of laws ; 3. Drawing up agree- 
ments with foreign states, &c. ; 4. Examining the magistrates, 
and taking the votes in the assemblies. 

THE ARCHONS were elected by lot, and, before they 
were admitted to office, passed i.n examination as to their 
family, age, past conduct, &c, and took oath that they would 
observe the laws, administer justice, and accept of no presents. 

Inferior Magistrates. — 1. Ol ev8sxa, the eleven, elected 
one from each of the ten tribes ; and, to complete the number, 
there was added a rpafifiatsv^, or registrar. 2. ^vXop^ot., who 
presided over the tribes. 3. A-^^op^ot, the chief magistrates 
of the Ar ( pi,ov, or boroughs in Attica. 4. A^tap^ot, six in num- 
ber, assisted by thirty inferiors ; they fined those absent from 
the Assembly, took the votes of those present, and kept the 
public registers. 5. Nofxoditai, 1000 in number; the} 7 inspected 
old laws, and, if found useless, caused them to be abolished 
by an act of the people. 

The Ephori. 

The *E$opoi, or "overseers," were the chief magistrates at 
Sparta ; they were five in number, and elected annually, from 
and by the people, without any qualification of age or pro- 
perty. Though at first only judicial officers, in time their 
authority became so great, that even the two hereditary kings 
of Sparta, as well as the magistrates, were prosecuted or sus- 



100 ASSEMBLIES. 

pended at their discretion. They had the superintendence 
of the public morals, convened the public assembly, levied 
troops, &c, &c, and had great influence in the most import- 
ant matters. Every month they exchanged an oath with the 
kings, promising to defend the royal authority, provided it 
did not violate the laws. The tribunal of the Ephori was the 
apx^ov or ityopeiov, a Council Hall in the Forum. 



ASSEMBLIES. 

'Exxtytfto, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the citizens at 
Athens, in which they met to discuss matters of public inte- 
rest. This assembly had the power of making laws, electing 
magistrates, proclaiming war, &c. ; the place of meeting was 
either the Agora (ayopa) or Pnyx (rtvv^), in later times, the 
theatre of Bacchus. The magistrates who presided in the 
Assembly were : 1. Prytanes (rtpvtdvsvs), who summoned the 
people, and announced the subject for decision ; 2. Proedri 
(rfpofSpoc), who occupied the front seats ; 3. in^'td'tr^, or Pre- 
sident, chosen by lot from the Proedri. The usual manner 
of giving votes was by holding up the hand, called x^potwia, 
and as soon as the voting was ended, the Proedri examined 
the suffrages, and pronounced the decree, tyrfiiapa, so called 
from the <$rj$ot,, pebbles, which, together with beans (xvapot,), 
were sometimes used in voting. 

«H frtiKfj 97 *-<*> risptaxooiw, THE SENATE OF THE FIVE 
HUNDRED. The institution of this body is attributed to 
Solon, in whose time the Council consisted of only 400 mem- 
bers ; but, on the tribes being remodelled by Cleisthenes, 
B.C. 510, the Council was increased to 500, and the members 
were divided into ten sections of fifty each, and were called 
Prytanes (rtpvrumj) : they presided in the Council, as well as 
the Assembly, during thirty-five or thirty-six days, so as to 
complete the lunar year of 354 days. Each tribe presided in 
turn, and the period of office was called a Prytany (rtpvtcwsia). 
The members of the Council remained in office for a year, at 



JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE. 101 

the end of which they were obliged to give an account of their 
conduct (svdvvrj) ; and previous to entering office, they sub- 
mitted to the 8ox(,(xaoia, or scrutiny into their private character. 
rspovoia was the name given to the Council of Elders, 
yepovtes, or Senate at Sparta ; it was composed of the two 
Kings and twenty-eight citizens, who had reached at 
least their sixtieth year. They were elected by the people, 
and were irresponsible. The functions of this Council were : 
1. To propose measures to be laid before the Popular Assem- 
bly ; 2. To discharge the highest offices of government ; 3. To 
sit as the supreme criminal tribunal ; and, 4. To watch over 
the public morals. 



JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE. 

THE COURT OF AREOPAGUS. — This was the most 
ancient and venerable seat of justice in Athens ; it derived 
its name from 6 "Apsioj nuyoj (the hill of Mars), because, it is 
said, Mars was the first criminal tried. The court was com- 
posed of ex-archons who had discharged their office un- 
blamably, and of the most distinguished citizens : the num- 
ber of judges varied at different times. They were termed 
apsi07ta,yltat, and took cognizance of all crimes, vices, and 
abuses, such as robbery, murder, poisoning, arson, &c. ; they 
overlooked religious matters, and punished severely for im- 
piety and contempt of holy mysteries. So great was their 
power, that they sometimes even annulled the decrees of the 
Popular Assembly. 

THE HELIASTS, so named from their court, jjtooui, were 
a body of Judges chosen by lot, and varied in number; some- 
times the Yfkuxvtoi were 6000 in number. They took cogni- 
zance of affairs of the greatest importance, but were not per- 
mitted to pass sentence until they had taken oath to decide 
according to the decrees of the people. 

THE DLETET^E. THE FORTY. — The faunae were 
inferior judges who settled private disputes, subject to an 
appeal before the Heliasts. They were chosen yearly from 
9* 



102 PUNISHMENTS. 

the $>t#xu,, or tribes, and were required to be fifty or sixty 
years of age. The Forty, ot -teaeapdxovta, were also inferior 
judges, who annually took a circuit through the Demi, and 
decided causes where the matter in dispute did not exceed 10 
drachmae. 

COURT OF THE EPHET^E. — The tyta* were judges, 
fifty-one in number, selected from noble families, and re- 
quired to be more than fifty years of age. Their jurisdiction 
extended to cases of justifiable and unintentional murder ; 
when judging of the former, they sat at the Delphinium — 
when of the latter, at the Palladium. 

AMPHICTYONES were members of the a^ixtvwia, which 
was a confederation formed for mutual security, and for the 
protection of a temple at which the members assembled to 
transact business and celebrate their festivals. The most 
celebrated was the Delphic Amphictyonia, originally com- 
posed of twelve tribes, whose deputies met annually at Delphi 
in the spring, and at Thermopylae in the autumn. The 
Council itself was called Pylaea, 7<v%ala. 



PUNISHMENTS. 

OSTRACISM (oatpaxioiMs) was a political plan for removing 
from the country for ten years those who had either power or 
popularity enough to attempt any thing against the State. 
The word is derived from osr'paxoj/, a tile, as it was on this 
each individual wrote the name of the person he wished to 
be ostracised. The assembly was held in the Agora, where 
each voter deposited his tile ; but no decision was valid unless 
the number of votes exceeded 6000. If this number were 
obtained, the ostracised was obliged to leave the city within 
ten days ; but in his absence no injury was done to the house 
or property of the banished, nor was any disgrace attached 
to ostracism. As by the votes of the tribes a man was ostra- 
cised, so was it in their power to recall him before teD years 
had elapsed, if they chose. 



TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES. 103 

'Ar't/tia was a public disgrace, by which the person on 
whom it was inflicted was deprived, either partially or 
totally, of his political privileges. 

AovteLa (servitude), by which a criminal was reduced to the 
condition of a slave. 

Xtiypcrta, marks impressed with a hot iron on the foreheads 
or hands of slaves who had fled from their masters, or of cri- 
minals convicted of grievous offences. 

Xtrjhrj, a pillar, on which was engraven the crimes of an 
offender. 

Aeofws, the punishment of imprisonment or chains. The 
instruments used were : 1. xvfyuv, the collar ; 2. ^oiVil, the 
stocks ; 3. owls, a piece of wood to which criminals were 
fastened ; 4. T'po^oj, a wheel to which slaves were bound, and 
beaten with stripes. 

Qvyri, banishment. Persons condemned to this punishment 
lost their estates, and had no hope of returning to their coun- 
try, unless recalled by those who banished them. 

®dvatos, capital punishment. This was performed in various 
ways : 1. By the sword (£<4>oj) ; 2. By a rope (|3po^oj) ; 3. By 
poison ((pdp/xaxov) ; 4. By stoning (*x0o/3oto'a) ; 5. By fire (rtvp) ; 
6. By the cross (fftfaupdj), &c, &c. 



TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES. 

The objects employed in the worship of the gods were 
either temples (vaas, 86/xo$), consecrated groves or en- 
closures (tifjiEvoi), or altars (|3cO(itoj). The temples were 
generally built in an oblong or round form, and adorned with 
columns. The larger temples were divided into three parts : 
1. 7tp6vao$ or rtpoSojitoj, the vestibule ; 2. radj, 0*7x0$, or oiSvtov, 
the temple or habitation of the deity whose statue it con- 
tained ; 3. drtioOobonos or drjsavpo^, the chamber in which the 
treasures of the temple were kept. 

The priests, set apart for the service of certain gods or 
temples, were called lepsls, apytijpes, Svoaxoot : divines and 



104 ORACLES. 

wizards, \ma.vtn^ or fcortpo'rtot. They foretold events from signs 
(lepcrfa, ojj^ar'a), such as thunder and lightning ; from the 
song and flight of birds, especially of prey (oU>u>vo7to%oi,, 
otwio-tal, 5f|t6s opw$) ; or from dreams, 6viipo7t&kov. 

The sacrifices were of three kinds. I. Occasionally 
human. II. Animal, called Ispeiov, viciima, Jiostia. The 
victim was in early times burnt whole, and termed holocaust ; 
but in Homer's time the thighs (fitjpol, ptjpa) were inclosed in 
fat and consumed, from which omens were often taken. As 
the gods were supposed to delight in a number of victims, a 
hundred bulls (txarofify) were often sacrificed. The word 
hecatomb is also used to signify any large sacrifice. The 
animals sacrificed were usually oxen, sheep, and goats, with- 
out blemish (tfstetos). Previous to being slain, the head of 
the victim was strewed with barley and salt (ov'kozvtai, 
mola salsa), adorned with garlands, and a tuft of hair was 
cut off from the forehead as a beginning (owap^, primitite) 
of the sacrifices ; the animal wfis then killed by drawing back 
the head (omi^juu) and cutting the throat. III. Unbloody 
sacrifices. These were: 1. Libations (%oifiai, artovbai, or 
%oai) of wine, milk, and honey, &c. ; 2. Cakes (rtixcwot), 
dishes of fruit (xspva), &c, &c. 



ORACLES. 



The word oraculum was used by the ancients to describo 
the revelations of the deities to men. The responses were 
sometimes given in verse, or written on tablets ; and their 
meaning was always ambiguous and obscure. The most 
celebrated oracles were: I. ORACLE OF ZEUS, at DODONA, 
the most ancient in Greece, founded by Pelasgians. The 
oracle was given from lofty oaks, which were said to have 
human voices and the spirit of divination, and were hence 
called the " prophesying or speaking oaks." With regard to 
this fable, the fact appears to be, that those who gave the 
oracles were men, and when consulted mounted an oak, and 



ORACLES. 105 

there gave the replies. The decisions of the oracle were 
afterwards given by two or three old women (called 7t8%sia8is). 
As this word also signifies doves, the fable originated respect- 
ing the oracles being delivered by doves. The usual form in 
which the oracles were given at Dodona was in hexameter 
verse. II. ORACLE OF APOLLO, at DELPHI. This oracle, 
the most celebrated of antiquity, was situated on Mt. Par- 
nassus, in Phocis, supposed by the ancients to be the centre 
of the world. The oracle was at first called Pytho; the 
priestess was named Pythia. In the innermost sanctuary 
the statue of Apollo was placed, and on an altar before it 
burnt an eternal fire; in the centre of the temple was a small 
opening in the ground, from which the most intoxicating 
vapours arose ; over this chasm the Pythia took her seat on a 
high tripod when the oracle was to be consulted, and the suf- 
focating fumes caused her to utter sounds which were taken 
down by the Prophetes, and were believed to contain the 
revelations of Apollo. The Pythia was always a native of 
Delphi, not allowed to marry ; and bound, after once enter- 
ing, never to leave the service of the god. The times for con- 
sultation, as well as the number of priestesses, were from 
time to time changed, to meet the wants of those who flocked 
to the oracle. Valuable presents were required to be made, 
and hence this temple exceeded all others in splendour, 
riches, and magnificence. It must, however, be borne in 
mind, that many of these valuables were only deposited in 
the temple for the sake of safety. 

The replies were always returned in the Greek tongue, and 
usually in hexameter verse, in the Ionic dialect. They had 
at all times a leaning in favour of Doric Greeks. 

The chief of the remaining oracles were — I. Of Zeus: 

1. The oracle at Olympia, in Elis ; 2. Zeus Ammon, in Libya, 
N.W. of Egypt, II. Of Apollo: 1. At Abse, in Phocis; 

2. At Delos, in the iEgean Sea ; 3. Of the Branchidse, at 
Didyma, in the territory of Miletus ; 4. At Claros, near Colo- 
phon, in Ionia. III. Of Heroes: 1. Oracle of Trophonius, 
at Lebadea, in Boeotia ; 2. Of Amphiaraus, near Thebes, and 
at Oropus, between Boeotia and Attica. 



106 'festivals. 



FESTIVALS. 

Festivals were instituted — 1. In honour of the gods, fir 
benefits received from them ; 2. In order to procure some 
favour; 3. In memory of deceased friends, who had done good 
service for their country ; 4. As a season of rest to labourers, 
that, as a recompense, some days of ease and refreshment 
might be obtained. The chief festivals among the Greeks 
were : — 

'ASwvta, in honour of Venus and Adonis. The solemnity 
lasted two days ; the first was given up to mourning and 
lamentation, the second to mirth and joy. 

'Avdsotripia, the chief of the Dionysian festivals, celebrated, 
in honour of Bacchus, for three days ; the first called Htdoiyla,, 
second, Xot j, third, Xvtfpot. 

'Artowovpia, celebrated at Athens, and lasted three days. 
The first called Aoprtfta, because each tribe assembled at an 
entertainment ; second, 'Avdppvais, because victims were offered 
to Jupiter ; third, Kovpfwrts, because the young children born 
that year were then taken to have their names enrolled in the 
public register. 

Aowj)j^^optci, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians, 
in honour of Apollo ; when an olive bough, adorned with 
garlands, was carried in procession ; on the top of the bough 
was a globe, the emblem of the sun or Apollo. 

Atowcaa, four festivals celebrated in honour of Dionysus or 
Bacchus, and observed at Athens with great splendour. The 
wildest mirth abounded at the various Dionysiac festivals ; 
some wore the dress of satyrs, others comic dresses, others, 
dancing ridiculously, personated madmen, and shouted Evot 
Bdxzs, w *Iax%s, 'Iw Bdxzs- Choruses were sung at these fes- 
tivals, called Dithyrambs, and theatrical representations were 
also given. 

'Etevolvta, the most celebrated and mysterious solemnity in 
Greece (sometimes called, by way of eminence, Mvatrpia), 
was observed every fourth year at Eleusis, in Attica. The 
mysteries were divided into (iixpd, in honour of Proserpine, 



FESTIVALS. 107 

ana /u.*yaxa, in honour of Ceres; they lasted nine days: on 
the first day the worshippers first met together ; second day, 
they purified themselves by washing in the sea ; third day, 
they sacrificed ; fourth day, they made a solemn procession, 
in which the xcOuddiov, or holy basket of Ceres, was carried ; 
fifth, the women ran about with torches ; sixth, the statue of 
*Iax%os, crowned with myrtle and bearing a torch, was carried 
from Ceramicus to Eleusis in procession ; seventh, there were 
sports ; eighth, the lesser mysteries were repeated, and those 
were initiated who did not enjoy that privilege; on the ninth, 
and last day, two earthen vessels filled with wine were thrown 
down, and the wine spilt was offered as a libation. 

©fff^o^opta ("the lawgiver"), in honour of Ceres; celebrated 
by the Athenians -with great pomp and devotion ; the wor- 
shippers were free-born women, assisted by a priest and by 
certain virgins, kept at the public charge. The women were 
dressed in white for four or five days before the festival, and 
on the 11th of the month Pyanepsion, they carried the books 
of the law to Eleusis, where the festival commenced, and 
lasted three days. 

IIara0»jMua, an Athenian festival in honour of Minerva, the 
protectress of Athens ; it was instituted by Erichthonius, 
who called it 'A0»jwua ; but afterwards revised by Theseus, 
who, having united all the Athenians into one body, called 
the festival nara^ycua. There were two solemnities called 
UavaOrivcua ; ixsyaxa, the greater, celebrated once in five years, 
and fxixpa, the lesser, celebrated once every year. The chief 
difference between the two festivals was, that at the greater 
one, which was attended with more solemnity, the Peplus, or 
garment of Minerva, was carried in procession to her temple 
on the Acropolis. The solemnities, games, and amusements 
of the Panathensea were : rich sacrifices, foot, horse, and 
chariot-races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the lam- 
padephoria, or race with torches ; at these festivals the works 
of Homer and other Epic poets were recited, philosophers 
disputed, and the people indulged in a variety of amuse- 
ments ; the chief solemnity, however, was the procession in 
which the greater part of the Attic population took part. 



108 PUBLIC GAMES. 

These festivals were at first celebrated for one day, but were 
afterwards prolonged for several. The prizes awarded were 
vases, containing oil from the sacred olive-tree of Athena, on 
the Acropolis. 



PUBLIC GAMES. 

These were instituted in honour of the gods or of deified 
heroes, and the victors, especially in the Olympian games, 
received the highest honours. On their return home they 
rode in a triumphal chariot into the city, a portion of the 
wall being thrown down to give them admittance ; they were 
honoured with the first places at all shows and games, were 
maintained at the public charge, and great honour descended 
to their relations. 

The games were called 'Aywvsj, and the principal exercises 
used in them were : I. Apduos, Cursus, running ; II. Akjxoj, 
throwing the discus ; III. "Afyta, Saltus, leaping ; IV. IIvyuTJ, 
Pugilatus, boxing; V. Iftxty, Lucta, wrestling. These five 
exercises were called by the Greeks 7tevta97jw, Pentathlon, 
by the Romans, Quinquertium. Some, however, instead of 
*vypr p place axovttov, jaculum, throwing the spear. 

I. Apo^oj, running; this game was performed in a space of 
ground called otdhov vel avtoj, containing 125 paces. There 
were four kinds of races : 1. atdfoov ; 2. SiovXoj, running twice 
over the stadium ; 3. S6uz°$> running seven times ; 4. otoIit^, 
running armed. 

II. Ataxoj, the discus, was a round quoit of stone, brass, or 
iron ; sometimes a heavy mass called oo%o$ was used instead 
of the discus, which was thrown by the help of a thong. 

III. "AA.ua, leaping ; this'exercise was sometimes performed 
with empty hands, and sometimes with weights of lead or 
stone, called ofctfjjpej, which were carried in their hands or 
upon the head and shoulders. 

IV. Ilvyujj, boxing ; in this exercise balls of stone or lead 
were sometimes held in the hand, and the cestus was used, 



PUBLIC GAMES. 109 

which was the name given to the bands of leather, sometimes 
loaded with iron and lead, and tied round the hands to harden 
the blows. 

V. IIaa.97, wrestling ; this was the most ancient of the exer- 
cises, and was performed in the Xystus, a covered portico ; 
in which two naked men anointed with oil, and sprinkled 
with dust, folded themselves in one another's arms, and en- 
deavoured to throw each other to the ground. There were 
two kinds of wrestling ; one in which the wrestlers contended 
on their feet, and another in which they threw themselves 
down, and contended rolling on the ground. [The Pancra- 
tium, Ttoyxpat't.oj/, was an exercise which consisted of wrestling 
and boxing.] 

The four solemn games in Greece, called aywv? 5 Ispol, were : 
I. The Olympic; II. Pythian; III. Isthmian; and IV. 
Nemean. 

THE OLYMPIC GAMES. — These were celebrated in 
honour of Zeus Olympius, and were held at Olympia, a town 
in Elis, whence they received the name Olympian. Their 
institution is assigned to Hercules by some, but it is impos- 
sible to say with any accuracy who was the real founder. 
They were for some period neglected, until the time of 
Iphitus, who re-instituted the solemnity ; but it was not till 
b. c. 776, when Corcebus won the foot-race, that the Olympiads 
were employed as a chronological era. The games were cele- 
brated every fifth year, in the Attic month Hecatombseon, 
and continued five days, from the 11th to the 15th inclusive, 
the interval of four years between each celebration of the 
festival being called an Olympiad. The Eleans had the 
management of the games, and appointed the judges, who 
were chosen by lot from their number. Women were not 
allowed to be present. Those who intended to contend were 
obliged to swear that they were freemen, not guilty of any 
sacrilegious act, and had spent the proper period (ten months) 
in preparatory exercises. The wrestlers were chosen by lot, 
and the exercises, in addition to those mentioned in the last 
section, were horse and chariot-races, in which, as in several 
of the other exercises, boys contended. There were also con- 
10 



110 PUBLIC GAMES 

tests in which musicians, poets, and artists, strove for 
the victory. 

The victors in these games were rewarded with wreaths of 
wild olive, and statues in the grove of Altis ; and still more 
substantially on their return to their own cities, as mentioned 
before. 

THE PYTHIAN GAMES were celebrated in honcur of 
Apollo, at Delphi, anciently called Pytho, whence the name 
Pythian. The common tradition is, that the games were in- 
stituted by Apollo himself, after he had overcome the serpent 
Python. They were at first celebrated every ninth year 
(ivvaetypLs) ; but afterwards at the end of every fourth year 
(fi£vtastt]p^), and comprehended the space of four years, com- 
mencing with the third year of each Olympiad. The games 
lasted several days, and the exercises were the same as those 
of the Olympic games. Some say that the solemnity was at 
first a musical contention, and that a song (to which a dance 
was performed) consisting of five parts was sung, in which 
Apollo's contest with the dragon was represented. The re- 
wards, when there was only a musical performance, are said 
to have been gold and silver ; but when gymnastic exercises 
were introduced, garlands of laurel, palm, or parsley, were 
presented to the victors. 

THE NEMEAN GAMES were celebrated in honour of 
Zeus, at Nemea, near Cleonas, in Argolis, every third year. 
The institution of these games is assigned both to the Seven 
against Thebes, as well as to Hercules, after he had slain the 
Nemean lion. The various exercises were chariot and horse- 
racing, and the pentathlon. The reward of the victors was 
at first a chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards a garland 
of parsley was awarded. 

THE ISTHMIAN GAMES were so called from the Corin- 
thian Isthmus, where they were celebrated. At the narrowest 
part of the Isthmus stood a temple (Fanum Neptuni), near 
which was a theatre and stadium of white marble, where the 
games took place. Some say they were instituted in honour 
of Palsemon, or Melicertes, son of Athamas, king of Thebes ; 
others, in honour of Neptune. The games took place every 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. Ill 

third year, and the exercises were the same as those of the 
other sacred festivals ; the rewards were chaplets of pine ; at 
one time ivy was used. 

The Isthmian games were held in great veneration, on ac- 
count of the religion by which they were consecrated, as well 
as on account of their antiquity. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

Divisions of the Army. 

The Grecian armies consisted of free bodies of men, whom 
the laws of the country obliged, when arrived at a certain 
age, to appear in arms: at the age of eighteen, the Athenians 
were appointed to guard the city ; at twenty, they were sent 
to foreign wars ; at sixty, they were allowed to retire. 

The army was composed of three classes of soldiers: 1. In- 
fantry, hs^ol; 2. Charioteers, qvloxot; 3. Cavalry, ImsIs. 

The foot soldiers were divided into, 1. 'OTtfaVcu, who 
wore heavy armour, and fought with broad shields and long 
spears ; 2. ^Ckol, light-armed men, who engaged with darts, 
arrows, and slings ; 3. H.£Ma(rta,l, who were armed with * 
small shield called HeMy. 

Arms. 

These were divided into two classes : 1. Arms for the pro- 
tection of the body ; and, 2. Those used to injure an enemy. 

I. The defensive arms, which protected the body: 1. 
xpdvog, xopvj, xvpirj, or 7ispi,xsq>a'kala, helmet, made of brass or 
of the skins of animals, and surmounted by a crest (ko<j>°0 ; 
2. 0u>pa|, cuirass, made of hemp (twisted into cords, and woven 
close together), of brass, or of leather covered with brass ; 3. 
xvqtil&ss, greaves, for the front of the legs, made of brass or 
other metal ; 4. aortis, a round buckler, made either of osiers 
twisted together, or of wood covered with leather, and bound 
round the edge with metal; in the centre was a projection 
called Ojuijxxkoj or fitao/xfyduov, a boss, upon which a spike was 



112 MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

sometimes placed. The 0vp*oj was an oblong shield (corre- 
sponding to the Latin scutum), and the TtiMy a small shield 
used in the Greek army, by a body of men named from using 
it risMadTfai. 

II. The offensive arms: 1. tyx°i an d 86pv, the spear and 
lance, usually made of ash ; the point, aixw, "was of metal ; 
2. £(4>oj, the sword, suspended by a belt (rsXa^cov) from the 
shoulder; 3. a^ivrj et rtitoxuj, pole-axe ; 4. *6%ov, the bow, said 
to have been invented by Apollo, who communicated his in- 
vention to the Cretans, who became first-rate archers : the 
arrows, which were called &&*}, oletoL, and totiv^ata, were 
made of light wood and pointed with metal ; 5. axovtiov, the 
javelin, of which there were various kinds ; 6. otyevbow], the 
sling, which was commonly used by the light-armed soldiers. 

THE CHIEF OFFICERS OF THE ARMY were, 1. rtoxi- 
jwap^oj or general (vide Magistrates) ; 2. otpatijytK, ten in num- 
ber, one elected from each tribe : they conducted all military 
affairs at home and abroad; 3. raltop^ot, ten in number, 
elected by the tribes : they had the care of marshalling the 
army, directing the marches and encampments, and discharg- 
ing the soldiers convicted of misdemeanours ; 4. iVtrtap^ot, two 
in number: they commanded the cavalry; 5. $v"kapxot, ten in 
number, elected by the tribes, subordinate to the tVtrtop^oc: 
the inferior officers received their names from the number of 
men they commanded. Among the Lacedaemonians, the 
supreme command was vested in one man (usually a king of 
Sparta), who was attended by a body-guard of horsemen, 
trtrtsij, 300 in number. 

THE DIVISIONS OF THE ARMY.— The whole body was 
called otpcutvd ; the van, (isturtov vel mpwT'os £t>yo? ; the wings, 
xspaifa ; the rear, ovpd vel "ff^ar'os £Vyoj. Minor divisions : 
7te(*7tds, a party of five soldiers ; 'koxos, a party of twenty-four 
or twenty-five, sometimes of only sixteen; tdfa vel exatov- 
tnpzla, a company of 100 or 120 ; $>atoiy§, a body of troops in 
close order, whose chief weapon was a long spear. The 
whole army of the Spartans was divided into fiopcu, regiments, 
and toxoc, companies, the number of men each contained is 
uncerta: n. 



NAVAL AFFAIRS. 113 



NAVAL AFFAIRS. 

The vessels of the Greeks may be divided into two classes : 

I. Naves Oner arise, otoeafos, fyoptyyoi, atpoyyvixu, rtWa, 
ships of burden, generally made of a bulky form, and chiefly 
propelled by sails. 

II. Naves Bellicse, tfpojpnj, tstpr-psts, rtsvrfpsis (triremes, 
quadriremes, quinqueremes), war-galleys, propelled chiefly by 
oars, and distinguished from each other by the number of 
banks of oars. The most usual number of banks was three, 
four, or five, which gradually ascended in the manner of 
stairs. The most common ships of war in the earlier times 
were long vessels (naves longce) called rtsvtrjxovtopot, with 
fifty rowers, twenty-five on each side. 

The principal parts of the vessel were : 1. tfporftj or atslprj 
(carina), the keel ; 2. rtpwpa or fiitco7tov (prora), the prow ; 3. 
jxsaoxoi'Ka, or middle part of the ship ; 4. 7tpv(tvt] (puppis), the 
stern; 5. rttevpal (latera), the sides of the ship; 6. xataatp^fxata, 
the decks or hatches ; 7. I6u»xta (transtra), the benches on 
which the rowers sat: the upper were called Opcwoi, (the rowers 
0pawVcu), the middle £vyd (the men ^vyltm), the lower 0aa.a^o$ 
(the rowers 0aft.a / utV(u) ; 8. s^o%ov (rostrum) or beak : this con- 
sisted of a beam pointed with brass, and was used for the 
purpose of sinking and disabling the enemy's vessels ; 9. 
avt%o<; (sentina), the hold ; 10. tfpa^f, the bulwark. 

The tackling, &c, used in navigation were: 1. tWoj (mains), 
the mast; 2. xipar'a, xtpaiat (antennai), the yards; 3. latlov 
(velum), the sail ; 4. tojtsla, the cordage, comprising o%oivla 
(funes), the cables, no8sg (pedes), the ropes attached to the 
lower corners of the square sail, and vnipai, the ropes fastened 
to the two ends of the yards ; 5. rtyj8d%iov (gubernaculum), the 
rudder, usually two large oars, placed on each side of the 
stern ; 6. oia|, the tiller or handle of the oar ; 7. ayxvpa, the 
anchor ; 8. xu>7tat or ipstfjiot (remi), the oars : their blades were 
called n^d-tai, (palmidcv), and were fastened in their holes 
by leather thongs, tportol (stropM) ; 9. xovtoi. (conti), punting 
poles. 

10* 



114 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS. 

The 8si$lv was a mass of metal suspended from the yaids, 
which, being thrown into an enemy's ship, by its weight 
either shattered or sank it. 

The two principal manoeuvres in commencing an engage- 
ment were the bux7Ckovs, or breaking the line, and 7tspi7tijovs, 
or outflanking the enemy. 

The chief naval officers were: 1. atohnpxos, vavap^o?, 
or otpa?rjyo$, the prcefectus classis, or admiral ; 2. JTtwr'otavj, 
the vice-admiral ; 3. rpojpop^os, or captain of a trireme ; the 
captains of other vessels receiving their titles from the num- 
ber of ranks of rowers their vessels contained. 

The common sailors were called vuvtcu, (naidce), the rowers 
ipstai, the soldiers who served at sea i7ti$dtaA [classiarii 
milites), marines ; xvfitpvqttjs (gubernator), the helmsman or 
pilot. 

On landing, the ancients used to haul their vessels on 
shore (avi%xetv, subducere) by means of (b%xol, pulvini) rollers. 
To launch them, was termed xad&xsiv (deducere). 



PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS. 

Meals. 

There were four daily meals taken by the early Greeks: 
1. apwtov or axpattaixa, the morning meal or breakfast; 2. 
Sslrtvov, or dinner ; 3. bsCkivov, or afternoon meal ; 4. hopnov, 
supper. The Greeks of a later age partook of three meals : 
1. dxpariu^a, 2. aipcatoi', 3. ShtCvov : corresponding to breakfast, 
luncheon, and dinner. It was customary among the ancient 
Greeks to sit at meat; but after luxury prevailed they re- 
clined on couches, xfavcu, that they might drink at greater 
ease. Two guests usually reclined on a couch, but some- 
times a greater number, who were then placed according to 
rank. 



priyate life of the greeks. 115 

Dress. 

The Greeks in ancient times used no covering for the head, 
but afterwards they wore hats called nl'Koi. The general 
name for clothing was sodfe. The inner garment of men, as 
well as of women, was x^ v -> a tunic ; but women of wealth 
wore a robe called syxvx"Kov xitwiov. The exterior garments 
were : 1. i/xdtcov or $apoj, a cloak (Lat pallium) ; 2. ^Aatva, a 
thicker garment for cold weather ; 3. ^awoA^f (Lat. pcenula), 
a round garment without sleeves ; 4. ifyFG-tpLs. a great coat ; 5. 
tpLjSov, a threadbare coat worn by philosophers and the poor ; 
6. etoXri, a long garment reaching to the heels ; 7. x*- a pv$, a 
military cloak. On^the feet were worn : 1. vTtoBr^to-, or shoes 
bound under with thongs ; 2. xprjrtlds j, slippers. Kcdonva* were 
buskins, or boots worn by tragedians. 

Funerals. 

The Greeks attached great importance to the burial of the 
dead, as they believed the souls could not enter the Elysian 
fields unless their bodies were buried ; and it was therefore 
looked upon as a grave charge on the character of a man to 
have neglected the burial of his relations. The follovrina, 
customs were connected with the Greek funeral. 

As soon as any one had expired : 1. the eyes were closoa 
by the nearest relative ; 2. the mouth was shut ; 3. the face 
was covered ; 4. all the members of the body were stretche4 
out ; 5. the body was washed and anointed with oil ; 6. 
wrapped in a handsome garment, and decked with ehaplefa 
and flowers; 7. laid out (rtp69saii) on a couch (xXivq), witb 
the feet towards the door; 8. a small coin (d/3oAo?) was place*! 
in the mouth, as Charon's fare for carrying the soul over th<i 
infernal river; and, 9. a small cake (ixsXitovtta) was also 
placed by the side of the corpse, intended to appease the fury 
of Cerberus. Before the door a vessel of water (dpddvoov) was 
placed, that those about the corpse might purify themselves 
by washing. 

On the day after the upoBta^, or the third day after deafh, 
the corpse was carried out (ixtyopd) for burial, attended by the 



116 THE GREEK THEATRE. 

friends and neighbours of the deceased. It was either buried 
(daTt-tsiv, xa-topvt'ttLv) or burnt (xaCsiv) on piles of wood,, called 
rtvpaC : when these were burnt down, the remains of the firo 
were quenched with wine, and the relatives and friends col- 
lected the bones, which were placed, together with the ashes, 
in urns, either made of gold, silver, wood, stone, or clay. 

The corpses not burnt were buried in coffins, usually out- 
side the city. It was usual after a funeral to partake of a 
feast at the house of the nearest relation of the departed, and 
on the third day to offer a sacrifice to the dead, called tptta. 
Libations (^oat) were also made for the deceased ; and the 
relatives expressed their sorrow in various ways, either by 
cutting off a portion of the hair, or shaving the head, sprin- 
kling themselves with ashes, beating their breasts, and tear- 
ing their flesh, &c, &c. 

The monuments erected over the graves were either otrfkcu, 
pillars or stone tablets, xiovts, columns, rai-Sia or syp^a, small 
buildings in the shape of temples, and fpdrtf^at, square stones; 
on these were inscribed the name of the deceased, and some 
account of his nast life. 



THE GREEK THEATRE (0*W P o„). 

The most ancient theatres were at first of wood, but after- 
wards built of stone, or cut in the rock. The form was semi- 
circular, and the rows of benches for the spectators, rising 
one above another, were arranged in front of the stage, which 
was divided into the Xoystov {pulpitum) in front, where the 
actors spoke, and the riposxr^iov {proscenium) behind, at the 
back of which was a wall, cxvjvri {scena), usually with three 
doors, for the entrance of the actors ; in front of the oxtp^ the 
back-ground scenes were placed, and concealed by a curtain, 
wviaiai (aulcea), till the play commenced, when it was drawn 
down. The opxrjatpa {orchestra) or pit was the circular space 
?h front of the rows of seats and the stage, and was occupied 
by the chorus ; in the centre of this space stood the flinty, or 



THE GREEK THEATRE. 117 

altar of Dionysus (Bacchus), on the top of which the leader 
of the chorus, ;topa/y6$, sometimes stood, and behind it the 
prompter, vrtofiotevs ('monitor), and flute-player were usually 
placed. The ancient theatres were of vast size, capable of 
containing in the xohov (cavea) many thousand spectators, 
who sat according to their rank, the senators, priests, &c, 
occupying the front seats. The buildings were open to the 
sky [the Romans sometimes used an awning], and, owing to 
their vast size, the actors wore masks, personce (adapted to 
their characters), with mouth-pieces to aid the voice ; and 
tragic actors wore cothurni, or thick-soled buskins, to elevate 
the figure. The ancients used in their theatres various stage 
machinery to give effect to the representations. 



EOMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



DIVISIONS OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE 
ROMAN EMPIRE. 

The Roman people were divided by Romulus into three 
tribes (tribus), Ramnes or Ramnenses, Titienses, and Luceres: 
these tribes were again divided into thirty curiae, each of 
which had its curio, or president, and the whole body had a 
curio maximus. 

The inhabitants of Rome were at first divided into two 
ranks (ordines): I. Patricii, and II. Plebei — these were 
connected together as Patroni and Clientes ; afterwards, the 
Equites, forming a kind of intermediate order, were added. 
The Patricii appear to have been the original citizens, and 
were divided into curias and gentes, or clans, united by reli- 
gious ties or family connexion. They were entirely separated 
from the Plebei, no connubium or marriage being permitted 
between the orders, and were the only parties eligible to the 
senate, or the higher offices in the religious and. political 
government of the state. 

In time, however, the Plebeians increased in importance 
by the admission of conquered tribes into their order, so that, 
from the time of Servius Tullius, they took part in the comitia 
or legal assemblies, and ultimately obtained the connubium 
and equal rights with the Patricians. The Equites were at 
first only a military order, 300 in number (celeres), and insti- 
tuted by Romulus. This number was increased by the suc- 
cessive kings ; the Equites had a horse at the public charge 
(equus publicus) and (ces equestre) a sum for its support. 
Latterly, however, the name Equites was extended from those 
who had horses at the public charge to all those having 

(118) 



THE SENATE. 119 

horses of their own, and qualified by their property to act as 
judices, and thus the military character of the original order 
disappeared, and all free-born citizens possessing 400,000 
sestertii were Equites, or of the Equestrian order. The in- 
signia of these Knights were the annulus aureus, gold ring, 
and the angustus clamis, a narrow band of purple wrought in 
the cloth, and extending from each shoulder to the bottom of 
the tunica. The Equites occupied the first fourteen benches 
at the theatres. 

When the ancient difference between Patricians and Ple- 
beians had disappeared, then arose a new classification, 
Nobiles and Ignobiles; the only privilege of the Nobiles 
was the Jus imaginum, an ancient custom of setting up in the 
atria or courts of their houses waxen busts or effigies of their 
ancestors. These Nobiles were again divided into Optimates 
or Conservatives, and Populares or Radicals. 

When the Roman empire enlarged its territories, there 
arose another division, Servi, or slaves, who became such 
either by being taken in war, by sale, by way of punishment, 
or by being born in a state of servitude. They received a 
monthly allowance, but could not obtain property without 
the consent of their masters. Slaves were sold at Rome by 
auction, and became either the property of private indviduals 
or of the state. 

The state of slavery was terminated by Manumissio, which 
was effected either by entering a slave's name on the Censor's 
books (censu), or by certain ceremonies with a rod (vindicta) 
before the Praetor, or by will (testamento). 



THE SENATE (Senatus). 

The Senate, according to tradition, was instituted by 
Romulus, and consisted at first of only 100 members [sena- 
tares or paires), chosen from the Patricians. This number 
was increased to 200 when the Sabine Tities became united 
to the Latin Ramnes, and another 100 were also added when 



120 THE SENATE. 

the Luceres, consisting chiefly of Etruscans, were incorpo- 
rated in the time of Tarq. Priscus ; these new Senators were 
called Patres minorum gentium, in distinction to the old Sena- 
tors, Patres majorum gentium. The vacancies which occurred 
in the Senate after the abolition of the monarchy (b.c. 509) 
were filled up by Plebeians of Equestrian rank, who were 
designated Conscripti, and hence the Senate was addressed 
as Patres (sc. et) Conscripti. The number of 300 remained 
until the time of Sulla, when the Senate consisted of between 
five and six hundred. The Senate possessed the administra- 
tive authority, in such matters as religious worship, taxation, 
levying of troops, negotiations with foreign states, embassies, 
provincial government, &c, &c. 

The sittings of the Senate were either regular (senatus 
legitimus) or extraordinary [senatus indictus), and were held 
between sunrise and sunset. When the members bad assem- 
bled, the presiding magistrate announced the subject (referre 
ad Senatum), and called on each member to state his opinions 
(rogare sententias, sententias dicere) ; this he delivered either 
by a single word or in a speech ; then followed the voting 
(discessio, pedibus ire in sententiam alicujus). The decree, 
when passed [Senatus Consultum vel Decretum), was written 
down and placed in the azrarium or treasury, under the care 
of the Praetor. 

A certain number of Senators were required to be present 
to make a decree valid, and those absenting themselves with- 
out just cause were fined. For Intercessio vide Tribuni. 

It was required in a candidate that he should be free-born, 
and possess a certain amount of property ; latterly, 800,000 
sestertii. The Senators were chosen [legebantur) by the 
Kings, by the Consuls, and, in later times, by the Censors ; 
one of the qualifications necessary was, that the candidate 
should have fulfilled the duties of the magistracy, the first 
degree of which was the quaestorship. The insignia of the 
Senators were the latus claims, a broad band of purple, ex- 
tending from the neck down the centre of the tunica, and the 
zalceus lunatus, a high shoe adorned with a small crescent. 
The Senators had also certain seats at the public shows. 



ASSEMBLIES. 121 

ASSEMBLIES (Comitia). 

The Comitia were the legal meetings of the Roman people, 
at which their votes were taken on matters connected with 
the government of the State. The Comitia could only be held 
on certain days (dies comitiales), never on festivals; and, pre- 
vious to meeting, notice was given (promulgari) of the subject 
for decision. There were three kinds of Comitia : I. Comitia 
Curiata ; II. Comitia Centuriata ; III. Comitia Tributa. 

I. COMITIA CURIATA were held, in a part of the Forum 
called Comitium, first by the Kings, and afterwards by the 
Consuls and Praetors. Though at first they were assemblies 
of the whole people, and possessed power in enacting lawa 
and confirming the authority of the Kings, on the decline of 
the Patrician power they lost their importance. The Comitia 
Calata belonged to these Comitia, which were merely meet- 
ings for the purpose of sanctioning certain proceedings, in- 
augurating the Flamines, &c. 

II. COMITIA CENTURIATA were held, extra Pomozrium, 
in the Campus Martius, either by the Consul or Praetor. In 
these Comitia the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, were elected, 
laws were passed, war declared, and capital offences were 
tried. The Comitia Centuriata were usually assembled by 
an edict, and summoned twenty-seven days before the period 
of meeting ; this space of time was called trinundinum. All 
those who had the right of Roman citizens might be present, 
and voted according to their property. On the day of meet- 
ing, the auspices were consulted by the presiding magistrate 
and the augurs, and the Comitia were opened with sacrifice 
and prayer. After the debate, if no religious obstacle pre- 
vented, the people were called on to arrange themselves for 
foting. The Equites voted first, and the six classes in suc- 
cession. The votes were at first viva voce, but were after- 
wards delivered in writing by means ,of a tabella. The 
centuries which were to vote passed over bridges into an 
inclosed space (ovlle), where the tabellce were supplied, and 
thrown by the voters into the cistoz or ballot-boxes, from 

11 



122 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 

which they were taken and counted, and the result of the 
voting proclaimed with a loud voice. 

III. COMITIA TRIBUTA were held both intra and extra 
Pomcerium, under the presidency of the Tribunes of the 
People. At these Comitia the inferior magistrates were 
chosen, as well as the ^Ediles Curules, and the Tribunes of 
the People after b.c. 471 ; and after B.C. 104 the members of 
the Colleges of Priests. Laws were passed at these Comitia 
called Plebiscita, which at first only bound the Plebeians; 
but after b.c. 306 they concerned the whole people. The 
Patricians seldom attended, as the votes of all were of equal 
force. 



MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 

JV". B. — The dates affixed are those of the institution of tlie 
various offices. 

iEDILES PLEBIS, b.c. 494, two functionaries elected from 
the Plebei, to take charge of the public buildings, to judge 
in inferior cases, inspect weights and measure, and prohibit 
unlawful games. 

^DILES CURULES, b.c 365, two in number, elected at 
first from the Patricii. They superintended the public games, 
took care of the buildings, repaired the temples, theatres, 
baths, &c, and were appointed judges in all cases relating to 
the buying and selling of estates. 

jEDILES CEREALES, b.c 45, two in number, elected 
from the Plebei. They inspected the public stores of corn, 
all commodities exposed in the markets, and punished delin- 
quents in fcJi eases of buying and selling. The office was 
instituted by Julius Caesar. The iEdiles had various officers 
under them, viz., pro3cones or " criers," scribos or " clerks/' 
and viatores or "attendants" and "messengers." 

APPARITORES, the general name given to the public 
officers who waited on the magistrates, such as the Accemi, 
Lictores, Scriboe, Prceoones, Viatores, &c. 



MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 123 

CENSORES, B.C. 443, two officers of high rank and autho- 
rity, elected (at first from among the Patricians) for a lustrum, 
cr space of five years ; but latterly the period of oflice was 
only for eighteen months. The duties were of three kinds : 
I. To take an exact account of the property and estates of 
Avery person (census), and to divide the people into their 
proper classes or centuries ; II. To superintend the adminis- 
tration of the finances of the State, and meet the expenses 
attendant on the erection or repairs of temples, public build- 
ings &c. ; III. To punish immorality in any person : the 
Senators they might expel from the Curia or Senate-house ; 
the Knights they might punish by depriving them of the 
horse allowed them at the public charge ; and the Commons 
they might remove from. a high tribe to one less honourable, 
impose on them a fine, or disable them from voting in the 
Assemblies. 

CONSULES, b.c. 509, the principal annual Roman magis- 
trates, two in number. The office was established on the ex- 
pulsion of Tarquinius, the last King of Rome. At the first 
institution, the Consuls were elected from the Patricians 
only; but afterwards, b.c. 366, the Plebeians obtained the 
right of electing one. The common age required in a candi- 
date was forty-three years ; the time of election was about the 
end of July or beginning of August, they were then called 
" designati" until entering on their office, the period of un- 
dertaking which varied at different times. At first their 
power was as great as that of the Kings, and their badges of 
office nearly the same, in public being always preceded by 
twelve lictors, with the fasces They wore the toga praitexta, 
sat on the curule chair, and carried an ivory sceptre. Their 
chief duties were presiding in the Senate, administering jus- 
tice, levying troops, commanding armies and provinces, con- 
ducting the Circensian games, &c, &c. The first Consuls 
elected were L. Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus. 

CURATORES, public officers of various kinds, viz. : Cura- 
tores Annonoz (of corn), Curatores Riparum (of the navigation 
of the Tiber), Curatores Kalendarii (of books containing the 
names of persons who borrowed public money), Curatores 



124 MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OFFICERS. 

Ludorum (of the public games), Curatores Operum Publico' 
rum (of public works), &c, &c. 

DICTATOR, b.c. 501, a magistrate with supreme authority 
among the Romans ; he was nominated by the Consuls, the 
auspices being taken at midnight. The Dictator was only 
elected at times when great danger threatened the State. 
His period of office was six months, sometimes even less. So 
great was the power of this officer, that he might proclaim 
war, levy forces, and lead them to battle, or disband them, 
without any consultation with the Senate. He could also 
punish as he pleased, and there was no appeal from him, at 
least until later times. The insignia of the office were the 
sella curulis and toga prcetexta ; the Dictator was also pre- 
ceded by twenty-four lictors, and during his tenure of office 
all other magistrates resigned except the Tribuni Plebis. 
On his election, his first act was to choose a " Magister 
Equitum," or Master of the Horse, who always attended him. 
T. Lartius Flavus, or Rufus, was the first Dictator, and Sp. 
Cassius Viscellinus the first Magister Equitum. 

PR^FECTUS URBI (office instituted by Romulus), an 
officer who presided in the city during the absence of the 
Kings or Consuls. The office was latterly merged in that of 
Prcetor Urbdnus. 

PRiETOR, b.c. 366, one of the chief magistrates at Rome, 
next to the Consuls. In b. c. 246 a Praetor was appointed, 
called Peregrinus, whose duty it was to administer justice 
in matters of dispute between peregrini (foreigners) or pere- 
grini and Roman citizens. The other Praetor was then called 
Urban us. Sp. Furius Camillus was the first Praetor: the 
number varied at different times. The duty of the Praetor 
was, 1. to administer justice (his tribunal was called " Prae- 
toriuni"), and, 2. to act as Consul in the absence of that 
officer. He was entitled to the proztexta, the sella curulis*, 
two lictors when at Rome, and six when out. The exercise 
of the praetorian authority was signified by the words "do" 
(when they granted licence to institute a trial), "dico" (when 
they pronounced sentence), and il addico' } (when they gave 



MAGISTRATES AND CHIEF PUBLIC OEEICERS. 125 

the goods of a debtor to a creditor). Praetors were also sent 
to govern provinces subject to the Romans. 

PRO-CONSUL, b. c. 327, a magistrate sent to govern a pro- 
vince with Consular power. It was usual for Consuls, on tha 
expiration of their Consulship at Rome, formally to obtain 
leave of the people, and get a decree of the Senate for per- 
mission to govern a province. The command lasted one year, 
at the end of which the Pro-Consul made up his accounts, 
left them in writing in the two chief cities of the province, 
and returned to Rome. The insignia were the same as the 
Consuls, but only six lictors. 

PROCURATOR, an officer of the Imperial provinces, who 
discharged the same duties as the Quaestors in other pro- 
vinces. 

PRO-PR^TOR, an officer who had all the authority of a 
Praetor. The name was assumed by those who, as Praetors, 
had continued in power beyond the time fixed. 

QUiESTORES, magistrates, at first two in number; in- 
creased b. c. 421 to four, b. c. 265 to eight, by Sulla, b. c. 82, 
to twenty, by Caesar to forty. They had the management of 
the public treasury. Two Quaestors accompanied the Consuls 
in all their expeditions; they received the name "Peregrini," 
the other two "Urbani." When the number was augmented, 
certain Quaestors were sent to collect the taxes in various pro 
vinces. No person was eligible to this office under the age 
of twenty-two years. 

TRIBUNI PLEBIS, b. c. 494, certain Roman magistrates, 
elected from among the Commons to defend their liberties ; 
they were at first only two in number, afterwards increased 
to five, and lastly to ten. Though at first only redressers of 
public wrongs, they afterwards assumed great power. They 
made decrees, and carried laws, which they executed on ma- 
gistrates themselves, ordering even Consuls to prison ; they 
possessed the right of " intercession and their persons were 
" sacrosancti." Nothing could be concluded without their 
consent, which was signified by affixing the letter T to the 
decree. They could prevent the passing of any measure by 
standing up, and pronouncing the simple word ''veto" (called 
11* 



126 JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHMENTS, ETC. 

intercessio). They kept open houses, and were never allowed 
to leave the city, except at the festival " Feriae Latinae," held 
on the Alban Mount. 

TRIBUNI MILITUM, b.c. 445, elected with Consular 
power. They were three in number, but in b. c. 405 in- 
creased to six. For many years the number of these tribune* 
was very irregular. The office was abolished f c. 367. 



JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS, PUNISHMENTS, &o. 

The judicial proceedings (judicia) of the Romans wer' 
either public or private. The judicia privata, or civil trial* 
had reference to the rights of private persons, &c, in whio*i 
at first the Kings, and afterwards the Consuls and Praetors, 
decided. The judicia publico,, or criminal trials, were origin* 
ally conducted by Qucesitores (subject to the Kings), and 
after the expulsion of the kings by the Consuls and Praetors. 
Capital offenders were tried before the Comitia Centuriata, 
at which it was necessary that the accuser should be a 
magistrate. 

The chief punishments among the Romans were : 1. mulcta 
or damnum, a fine; 2. vincula, bonds, imprisonment; 3. ver- 
bera, beating or scourging ; 4. talio, retaliation, as an eye for 
an eye ; 5. ignominia or infamia, disgrace inflicted by the 
Censors, or by edict of the Praetor ; 6. exilium, banishment ; 
7. servitus, slavery ; 8. mors, death, either by decapitation, 
hanging, throwing from the Tarpeian Rock, strangling, burn- 
ing, crucifying, &c. 



PRIESTS 



The ministers of religion among the Romans were divided 
into two orders : I. Those appointed to the common service 
of ail the gods ; and, II. Those devoted to the service of par* 
ticular deities. Among the former were — 



PRIESTS. 127 

THE PONTIFICES, a college of priests, presided over by 
the Pontifex Maximus. They were first appointed by Numa. 
The Collegium consisted of four members, elected from the 
Patricians until B.C. 300, when an equal number of Plebeians 
were admitted. They administered the ecclesiastical laws, 
prescribed the ceremonial of any new public or private wor- 
ship, prepared the forms for public prayers and vows, com- 
posed the annals, and regulated the fasti, interpreted pro- 
digies, inaugurated magistrates, and punished persons guilty 
of offences against religion. The insignia of the Pontifices 
were the toga prcetexta and a woollen cap, pileus. The Pon- 
tifex Maximus chiefly superintended the service of Vesta. 

THE AUGURES or AUSPICES were originally three or 
four in number, Patricians, presided over by a Magister Cob- 
legii; but in b.c. 300 five Plebeians were added, and under 
Sulla the Augurs were increased to fifteen. The word Augur 
or Auspex at first meant a diviner by birds (aves) ; but in 
time the name was applied in a much wider sense. The art 
was called Augurium or Auspicium. In ancient times no 
transaction, either public or private, took place without con- 
sulting the auspices, which were divided into five kinds : 
1. Those derived from the sky (ex coelo), particularly from 
lightning and thunder; 2. From birds (ex avibus), which 
were either oscines, which gave auguries by singing, or 
allies, by flying; 3. From the feeding of chickens (ex tri- 
pudiis), chiefly war auguries; 4. From four-footed animals 
(ex quadrupedibus) ; 5. Ex diris signis, which included every 
other kind of augury, as sneezing, stumbling, &c. The 
Augurs, when about taking the auspices, stationed them- 
selves on some open ground, and, after offering sacrifices, 
proceeded, with veiled heads, to mark out with the lituus, or 
curved wand, a particular division, templiim, in the heavens, 
in which they intended to make their observations. The 
spectio, or right of taking the auspices of the State, was con« 
ducted by a magistrate, assisted by an Augur, who inter- 
preted the signs. The auspices taken by the magistrates 
were divided into auspicia majora and minora, the former 
being taken by the Consuls and superior magistrates, the 



128 PRIESTS 

latter by the Quaestors and Curule iEdiles. The right of self- 
election, co-optatio, was possessed by the Augurs until b.c. 1C3. 
The insignia of the order were the trabea and lituus. 

THE FETIALES were a college of priests, instituted by 
Nunia. They were twenty in number, and their president was 
styled Pater Patratus. The Fetiales acted as the guardians 
of the public faith, and it was their office, when disputes 
arose with foreign states, to demand restitution, conclude 
treaties, and perform the rites attendant on the declaration 
of war, &c. 

THE HARUSPICES were soothsayers, who interpreted the 
will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails (exta), 
whence they are sometimes called Extispices. The art was 
called Haruspiclna, and much taught in Etruria. 

THE DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS or SACRO- 
RUM were the priests appointed to take charge of the three 
Sibylline Books (which Tarquin received from the Sibyl), 
and offer the sacrifices prescribed by them. At first they 
were two in number, then ten (five Patrician and five Ple- 
beian), and afterwards fifteen. The term Decemviri was also 
applied to the ten officers who were appointed to draw up 
a code of laws, b.c. 451 (vide Chronology). 

THE CURIONES were priests for the Curiae, under a Curio 
Maximus. 

THE REX SACRIFICULUS was a priest appointed after 
the expulsion of the Kings to superintend the religious rites 
formerly performed by them. 

The priests for the services of particular deities. 

THE FL AMINES were appointed to the temple-service of 
certain gods ; they were fifteen in number, the chief of whom 
were Flamen Dialis, the priest of Jupiter; Flamen Martialis, 
the priest of Mars ; Flamen Quirinalis, the priest of Romulus. 
They wore a purple robe, Icena, and conical cap, apex. 

THE VIRGINES VESTALES were appointed by Numa 
to feed the sacred fire, and guard the relics in the temple of 
Vesta; they were at first four in number, two more were sub- 
sequently added. They were originally chosen by the Kings, 
afterwards by the Pontifex Maximus, and were required Dot 



PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, ETC. 129 

to be under six nor above ten years of age, and free from 
bodily defects. The period of service lasted thirty years, at 
the end of which they were allowed to marry. While in the 
service of the goddess, they enjoyed many privileges, such as 
freedom from parental control, a particular seat at shows, the 
right of liberating any criminal whom they accidentally met, 
the attendance of a lictor, &c. They were subject to the 
Pontifex Maximus, who severely punished them for letting 
out the sacred fire, and for unchastity ordered them to be 
buried alive. The Vestals were clad in a white robe, and 
their heads were adorned with fillets (infulce). 

THE SALII were priests of Mars Gradivus, twelve in 
number, Patricians, appointed by Numa to guard the Anclle, 
or sacred shield, which fell from heaven, and the eleven 
others of similar make which were kept in the temple of 
Mars, and carried in procession, with dancing and singing, 
by the Salii, annually on the first of March. 

THE LUPERCI were priests of Pan ; they went in proces- 
sion, dressed in goat-skins, on the Lupercalia or festivals of 
Pan, to the Palatine, where they sacrificed to the god. 

THE GALLI were the eunuch priests of Cybele, whose 
worship was introduced at Rome from Phrygia, b. c. 204. 

THE FRATRES ARVALES were twelve in number, who 
superintended the yearly rural sacrifice of purification. 



PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, &o. 

The worship of the gods consisted of prayers, vows, and 
sacrifices. Public prayers were offered by the chief magis- 
trates after a form prepared and recited by the priests ; these 
prayers were often accompanied by vows (vota). It was usual 
for persons who had been in great danger during a voyage, 
on landing, to hang up their clothes in the temple of Nep- 
tune, with a tablet (votiva tabula), on which was depicted a 
representation of the event. 

Sacrifices (sacrificia) formed the chief part of the publio 



130 PRAYERS, SACRIFICES, FESTIVALS, ETC. 

worship of the Romans, whose customs were in this matter 
much the same as those of the Greeks. The victim (hosiia, 
victima), without blemish before being sacrificed, was deco- 
rated with garlands (vittce, infulce), and sometimes its horns 
were gilded ; it was then led to the altar by the popa, or 
attendant, where the animal's head was sprinkled with roast 
barley meal, mixed with salt (mola salsa), and afterwards 
slaughtered, and its entrails (exta) inspected by the harus- 
pices, the better parts strewed with meal, wine, and incense, 
and burnt on the altar, and a solemn banquet prepared. The 
lustratio was a purification in which the victim was lead 
round the object intended to be purified. (For libatio, vide 
page 104.) The most common sacrifices at Rome were the 
suovetaurilia, consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. 

The places dedicated to the worship of the Romans were 
either buildings, or sacred spots consecrated by the Augurs : 
e. g. templa, cedes sacrce, fana, dehibra, sacella, cediculce; luci. 

Days among the Romans were either devoted to religious 
observances, dies festi, or to business, dies profesti. The 
ferice or festivals, in which the Romans ceased from political 
transactions, law-suits, &c, were divided into publicce and 
privatce ; the former being again divided into ferice stativce 
or immoveable, ferice conceptivce or moveable, and ferice im- 
perativce, fasts held by command of the magistrate: the ferice 
privatce were kept by families in commemoration of birth- 
days, &c. 

The chief ferice stativce were the Lupercalia to Pan, 15th 
of February ; Matronalia, celebrated by matrons for various 
causes, 1st of March ; Megalesia, or feast of Ci/bele, mother of 
the gods, 4th of April ; Parilia or Palilia, in honour of Pales, 
deity of orchards, 21st of April ; feast of the Bona Dea, 
attended by the vestal virgins and women only, 1st of May ; 
feast of Castor and Pollux, with the Transvectio Equitum, an 
annual procession of the Equites or Knights, 15th of July ; 
Saturnalia, feasts of Saturn, the most celebrated of. the fes- 
tivals, when all orders devoted themselves to mirth and revel- 
ling ; the feast commenced on the 19th, afterwards 17th, of 
December, and lasted several days. 



GAMES. 131 

GAMES. 

The games of the Romans were either stated {stati), and 
votive, or extraordinary, which were celebrated in con- 
sequence of vows, or at the funerals of private persons. The 
games were of three kinds: I. Ludi Circenses; II. Gla- 
diator ii, shows of Gladiators; III. Scenici, dramatic en- 
tertainments. 

The Ludi Circenses, so called from being celebrated in 
the circus (maximus), were of Etruscan origin. They com* 
menced with a procession, and consisted of: I. Cursus, chariot 
or horse-races ; 2. Ludus Trojce, a sham fight or tournament 
on horseback; 3. Pugna equestris et pedestris, a representa- 
tion of a battle ; 4. Certamen gymnicum, consisting of the 
TiivtaJQ'kov of the Greeks (Lat. quinquertium) ; viz. saltus, leap- 
ing; cursus, running; lucta, wrestling; pugilatus, boxing; 
discus, throwing the quoit or discus ; and the pancratium ; 
5. Venatio, hunting, i. e. the combats of wild beasts, either 
with one another or with men hired for the purpose, or with 
condemned criminals or captives ; 6. Naumachia, a represen- 
tation of a naval engagement; the Naumachise were either 
exhibited in the amphitheatres ( sufficient water being brought 
in to float the ships), or in buildings erected for the purpose. 

Gladiatorii. The shows of gladiators were also of Etrus- 
can origin, and were first introduced at Rome in the Forum 
Boarium, B.C. 264, by order of M. and Decimus Brutus, 
at the funeral of their father. Though at first only confined 
to funerals, the shows of gladiators afterwards took place at 
public festivals, and combats were exhibited by the chief 
Roman magistrates and emperors till the time of Constantine, 
by whom they were abolished. The combatants were at first 
either slaves, captives, or condemned criminals, and some- 
times free men, who hired themselves out; but during the 
empire, even Senators and Equites fought in the arena. 

The gladiators were instructed by a lanista in the use of 
the various weapons, and previous to the actual combats a 
pradusio or sham battle took place, when the gladiators were 
matched by pairs, and used blunt wooden swords (rudes), 
which were also given them on their discharge. 



132 GAMES. 

The several kinds of gladiators were : 1. Anddbatce, who 
wore helmets which covered the face, and consequently they 
fought blind-folded ; 2. Catervarii, who fought in companies ; 
3. Essedarii, who fought from chariots ; 4. Mirmillones (so 
named from having the image of a fish (^opjuvpoj) on their 
helmets), usually matched with retiarii or Thracians ; 5. Re- 
tiarii, who fought with a "fuscina," or three-pointed lance 
(tridens), and a net (rete), with which they endeavoured to 
entangle their adversaries, and despatch them with the tri- 
dent ; 6. Samnites, who used the oblong shield (scutum) and 
the usual armour of the Samnites ; 7. Thraces, armed like 
the Thracians, with a round shield and short dagger (sica). 
When a gladiator was wounded, the people shouted habet, 
" he has got it," and the vanquished one lowered his arms in 
token of submission ; but his fate depended on the people, 
who pressed down their thumbs (pollicem premere), if they 
wished his life to be spared, and turned them up (vertere) as 
a signal for death. The combats usually took place in the 
Amphitheatrum, a large building, in form a complete 
oval, the centre space of which was called the arena, from 
being sprinkled with sand ; the most celebrated was the 
Amph. Flavium or Coliseum, built by Vespasian and 
Titus, which had raised seats, capable of containing 87,000 
spectators. 

The Scenici, or stage plays, were introduced from Etruria, 
about b.c. 364. They were performed in theatres (theatra), 
large semicircular buildings, fitted up with benches or seats 
(cunei), which rose one above another ; the fourteen foremost 
rows next the stage being occupied by the Equites ; the whole 
of the space for the public was called cavea. The orchestra 
was a semicircular space in front of the spectators, assigned 
to the Senators, foreign ambassadors, &c. The Scenici 
were of three kinds : Comoedia, Comedy ; Tragoedia, Tragedy ; 
Mimus, Pantomime. The dramatic pieces were purchased 
by the JEdiles, and the recitation was accompanied by flutes, 
and the actors usually wore masks, personal. Vide Greek 
Theatre (page 116), to which, on the whole, the Roman cor- 
responded. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. 133 

MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

Conscription and Period of Service, &c. 

The Romans were a nation of warriors, and thus from the 
earliest period they had an organized military establishment. 
In the early times, the army consisted of 3000 infantry and 
three centuries of cavalry [Equites). When Servius Tullius 
divided the people, he formed the better class of citizens into 
eighteen centuries of Equites. The infantry then consisted 
of five classes, and were divided into seniores, for the defence 
of the city, and juniores, for service abroad. 

Every citizen was compelled to enlist when the public ser- 
vice required : the age of enlisting was from seventeen to forty- 
six, and the time of service twenty campaigns of one year for 
the infantry, and ten for the cavalry; these services were 
looked upon as honourable, and ten years of either infantry 
cr cavalry service was a qualification for the magistracy. 
At first, none of the poorest citizens [proletarii) or freedmen 
performed military service, except on urgent occasions. Ma- 
rius, B.C. 107, first chose soldiers without reference to pro- 
perty, in still later tt* * Q s citizens were exempted from com- 
pulsory service, and ui, .er the Emperors the army consisted 
chiefly of foreigners. In the times of the Republic, four 
legions of soldiers were raised, two for each Consul; but 
this number gradually increased, and was greatly augmented 
by allies. 

The Consuls, at the yearly conscription, required all 
those who had reached the military age to appear on the 
Campus Martius, or at the Capitolium, for the purpose of en- 
rolling their names. The selection was made by the Military 
Tribunes, after which an oath (sacramentum) was adminis- 
tered. Persons suffering from bodily infirmity were exempted 
from service ; but soldiers conscribed on a sudden emergency 
(tumultuarii or siibitarii) were allowed no exemption. Soldiers 
who had served their time were called emeriti, and received a 
discharge, missio, but sometimes were again called out or 
12 



134 MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

induced to re-enlist, and were then termed evocati. The pay 
of the common soldiers was ^ denarius a day ; the centurion 
received double this sum ; the Equites were allowed a horse 
at the public expense, and an annual sum for its keep (Vide 
page 118). 

Divisions of the Army. 

After the levy was completed, and the oath administered, 
the troops were formed into legions; each legio was divided 
into ten cohortes, each cohort into three manipuli, and each 
manipulus into two centurice. To each legion belonged a 
body of cavalry (300 in number), divided into ten turmoz or 
troops, each turma containing three decurice. The number 
of men in a legion varied at different times, generally from 
4000 to 6000 infantry, and from 300 to 400 cavalry. The 
soldiers were divided into the hastati (forming the first line, 
so called from bearing the hasta, a long spear, which was 
afterwards laid aside, and the pilum used instead), the prin- 
cipes (men of middle age in the vigour of life, who formed 
the second line, originally the first), the triarii, old soldiers, 
who formed the third line; they were also called pilani, 
from the pilum or javelin they .used. The other kinds of 
soldiers were : 1. Velites, swift and light-armed soldiers, em- 
ployed in outpost duty when the Romans were encamped ; 
2. Funditores, slingers ; 3. Sagittarii, archers ; 4. Ferentarii 
and Rorarii, light-armed soldiers. 

Arms. 

The defensive arms were : 1. scutum, an oblong shield, 
made of wicker-work or wood, joined together with iron and 
covered with hide, and having an iron boss in the centre ; 
2. clijjeus, a large shield of a circular form ; 3. galea, the 
helmet, made of brass or iron, and surmounted by a crista or 
crest ; 4. lorlca, a coat of mail or cuirass, generally made of 
leather, covered with plates of iron or of chain ; 5. thorax, a 
breast-plate (more in use than the lorlca) ; 6. ocrece, the 
greaves for the legs, made of metal lined with leather. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. 135 

The offensive arms were: 1. gladius or ensis, a sword, gene- 
rally straight, with a two-edged blade; 2. pila, javelins pointed 
with iron ; 3. hastce, long spears. 

The light-armed soldiers, velites, mentioned above, used a 
small shield called parma. 

Officers. 

The command (imperium) of the army was intrusted to 
the chief magistrates ; first to the Kings, and afterwards to 
the Consuls, Praetors, and Dictators. The principal officers 
under these were : 1. Legati, nominated by the Consul or 
Dictator, and approved of by the Senate. 2. Tribuni Militum, 
elected by the Consul or Dictator; latterly, B.C. 362, partly 
by the people ; to each legio there were at first three, but 
afterwards six Tribunes, who were relieved every two months. 
3. Centuriones, chosen by the Tribunes according to merit 
from the common soldiers ; each maniple had two, a prior 
and posterior. The Centurions had under them Optiones, or 
Succenturiones, and Signiferi, or standard-bearers. 

The troops of allies (auxilia) were commanded by Pros- 
fecti. 

The cavalry was commanded by a Prcefectus alee, and the 
turmce had each three Decuriones (or officers often), who had 
under them Optiones or deputies. 

The military cloak of the General was called paludamentum 
or clilamys, and was of a scarlet colour (the latter was also a 
travelling-dress). The sagum was the common military cloak 
of the soldiers. 

The Romans, when on a march, every night constructed 
an encampment, which they fortified with a palisade {vallum), 
trench [fossa), and mound [agger). The camp was generally 
a parallelogram, and had four gates, prartoria, decumana, 
principalis dextra, and sinistra. 

The signals were given by wind-instruments : buccina (a 
trumpet, bent almost round), cornu (a horn similar to the 
buccina), tuba (a straight trumpet) in the infantry, and lituus 
(the clarion) in the cavalry. 



136 MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS, ETC. 

The Order of Battle. 

The army was usually drawn up in three lines, hastatt, 
principes, and triarii, placed at certain distances, and divided 
into maniples or cohorts, the open spaces being occupied by 
(velites) light troops. The legions were in the centre {media 
acies), and the cavalry and allies formed the wings (comua). 
Sometimes a different order of battle was necessary, and the 
troops were formed into the cuneus or wedge, the orbis or 
globus, a round body, and the testudo, a compact body em- 
ployed in sieges, the whole of the men being covered with 
their shields, as with a roof. 

The standards, signa, gave the signals for the,, movements 
of the army ; each maniple had one, the ancient signal of 
which was a handful of hay on a pole. The standard of the 
legio was a spear, liasta, with the figure of an animal upon it : 
from the consulship of Marius, b. c. 104, a silver eagle with 
extended wings became the standard of the legio. 

The engines used in storming towns, &c, were : 1. Aries, 
a battering ram, consisting of a beam, to one end of which 
was fixed a mass of iron, in the form of a ram's head ; 2. Bal- 
lista, an engine for projecting stones, &c. ; 3. Catapulta, used 
for throwing darts ; 4. Vinea, a shed (pushed forward on 
wheels), under which generally hung the aries ; 5. Turris, a 
wooden tower, lofty enough to overtop the walls of the city, 
against which it was usually wheeled upon an artificial 
mound [agger). It was faced with iron or wet hides, to pro- 
tect it from fire, and consisted of several stories (tabulata) t 
on which slingers, catapults, &c, were placed. 



MILITARY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. 
TRIUMPH. OVATION. 

Besides a share in the booty taken from an enemy, the 
Roman soldiers received as rewards garlands of leaves or 
flowers. The principal were: 1. Corona civica, a crown of 



NAVAL AFFAIRS. 137 

oak-leaves, presented to one who saved the life of a citizen ; 
2. Corona castrensis, given to the soldier who first forced an 
entrance into an enemy's camp ; 3. Corona muralis, for him 
who first scaled the walls of a besieged city ; 4. Corona obsi- 
dionalis or graminea (grass), given to the commander who 
had relieved a besieged city, or an army surrounded by an 
enemy ; 5. Corona oleagina (olive-leaves), presented by their 
commanders to soldiers who had distinguished themselves. 
The other rewards were weapons of honour, hasta pura; 
vexilla, standards ; phalerce, trappings ; aurece torques, gold 
chains ; armillaz, bracelets, &c, &c. The military punish- 
ments were deprivation of pay, degradation of rank, to be 
beaten with rods, to be scourged and sold as a slave, to be 
stoned, to be beheaded, &c, &c. 

The highest honour a general could obtain was a triumph, 
and to be saluted as Imperator by his army. To be honoured 
with a triumph, it was necessary that the general should in 
a just war have extended the bounds of the empire, and de- 
stroyed more than 5000 enemies in one battle. On a triumph 
being decreed, the procession proceeded from the Campus 
Martius to the Capitolium, and consisted of musicians, oxen 
for sacrifice, the spoils taken in war, models of the captured 
cities, the captives, the lictors (their fasces being wreathed 
with laurel), and the general (dux) dressed in purple embroi- 
dered with gold (toga pictd et tunica palmatd), crowned with 
a laurel wreath, and in an ornamented chariot drawn by four 
white horses, followed by the victorious army. There was 
also an inferior sort of triumph, ovatio, in which the general 
entered the city on foot, crowned with a wreath of myrtle, 
and sacrificed a sheep. 



NAVAL AFFAIRS. 

For the names of the various parts of a ship, tackling, &c, 
the reader is referred to Greek Antiq., "Naval Affairs," page 
12* 



138 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 

113, where the corresponding Latin names are given. Th« 
Roman navy consisted of naves longce, triremes, quadrir ernes, 
quinqueremes ; lighter vessels, actuarice, libumce, vide page 
113 ; onerariaz, ships of burden or transports. The Romans 
in their engagements attempted to set fire to the enemy's 
ships, or seize and board them by means of corvi, ferrece ma- 
ntis, and narpagones, grappling irons, &c. Sometimes towers 
or castles were built on their vessels, from which arrows 
and other missiles were discharged. The vessels were often 
manned by slaves, freedmen, and the lowest class of citizens. 
The admiral, dux, prcefectus classi, was usually a Consul, and 
his ship was called navis proztoria. 



PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 

Dress. 

The dress of the Romans consisted of the tunica, a woollen 
garment, which was generally without sleeves, and reached 
a little below the knees. A long tunic with sleeves was con- 
sidered effeminate. The tunic was fastened round the waist 
by a belt, cingidum. The Senators wore a tunica laticlavia, 
with a broad purple stripe wrought in the cloth ; and the 
Equites or Knights a tunic with a narrow stripe, tunica 
angusticlavia. A dress called subucula was generally worn 
under the tunica. The toga, the distinguishing part of the 
Roman dress, was an outer gown or mantle, thrown round 
the body so as to cover the left arm, and leave the right 
partly exposed, and forming a fold, sinus, on the breast ; 
these folds, when collected in a knot or centre, being called 
umbo. The colour of the toga was white {alba, pura). Can- 
didates for office wore a toga whitened by the fuller {toga 
Candida). 



PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 189 

Magistrates wore the toga prwtexta, bordered with purple ; 
and generals in a triumph an embroidered toga, picta or pal* 
mata, having palm-leaves worked on it. The toga praetexta 
was worn by young women until they were married, and 
young men till they were seventeen years of age, when the 
latter assumed the toga virilis ; this ceremony was performed 
with great solemnity in the Forum. The pcenida was a gar- 
ment used chiefly as a travelling-cloak. In later times, the 
lacerna, a kind of great-coat, was worn above the toga, with 
the cucullus, a cowl or hood ; similar to the lacerna was the 
lecna. The stola was a female dress worn over the tunica, 
and fastened by a girdle ; over the stola was worn the palla, 
corresponding to the toga of the male sex. 

The coverings of the feet were calcei, shoes, when abroad, 
and solece, sandals, which only covered the sole of the foot. 
The shoes of the soldiers were called caligce, of comedians, 
socci, and of tragedians, cothurni. 

The head was uncovered, except in bad weather or when 
on a journey, when the pileus, hat, or galerus, cap, was 
worn. 

Rings {annuli), set with precious stones, were very much 
worn by the Romans; the Senators and Equiies used golden 
rings, the Plebeians iron ones. 



Meals. 

The first meal taken was the jentaculum, or breakfast ; to 
this followed the prandium, or luncheon, taken about noon • 
cozna, or dinner, was the next and the principal meal of the 
Romans ; it was taken in the evening, and consisted of three 
courses, the first gustatio, antecoena, or promulsis, the second 
or principal course caput cocno3, and the dessert mensoc secimdce 
or bellaria. The guests reclined, according to their rank, on 
couches (lecti), generally three, summus, medius, imus, at 
each table, thus : — 



140 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS, 

lectus niedius 











so 












=0 












CO 


•§ 


I 










i 


*§ 

v 












•?* 


§ 


»s 








summus 




6 


5 


4 




imus 


05 


*5 


7 








3 


3 


S3 
















B 


a 
















a 


oo 


medins 


8 








2 


medius 


DQ 


B 








mensa 








2 






imus 


9 








1 


summus 


















F— 1 



A supper, commissatio, was sometimes taken after the ccena. 
"Wine, though rarely drunk in early times, came afterwards 
into general use, but was sometimes mingled with water or 
cooled with snow. The best Italian wines were vinum Ccecu- 
bum, Falernum, Massicum, Calenum, Albdnum, Surrentinum, 
Selinum, &c. ; the foreign were vinum Chium, Lesbium, LeiL- 
cadium, Coum, Rhodium, Naxium, Meconium, &c. The wines 
were brought to table in jars, amphorcB, and mixed with water 
in a bowl, crater, whence it was poured into pocula, cups. 



Private Houses. Baths. 

Though at first mere cottages, the houses of the Romans in 
after-times were built in a style of great elegance, and orna- 
mented with marble pillars, elegant furniture, pictures, vases, 
candelabra, &c. 

The principal parts of the Roman houses were : 1. Yesti- 
bulum, an open space before the doors, enclosed on three 
sides by the building ; 2. Ostium or janua, the door or en- 
trance, with the limen, threshold, postes, door-posts, fores or 
valvce, the actual doors ; 3. Atrium or cavum cedium, the prin- 
cipal apartment : in the centre of the roof was an opening. 
eampluvium, from which the rain-water fell into a cistern 



PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 141 

(impluvium) in the floor ; this impluvium, which also denoted 
the aperture in the roof, was ornamented with statues, &c. ; 
4. Alee, the wings or small apartments on each side of the 
atrium; 5. Peristylium, adjoining the cedium, a partially open 
court-yard surrounded by columns, and ornamented with 
shrubs and flowers ; 6. Cubicula or dormitoria, bed-chambers ; 
7. Triclinia, dining-rooms ; 8. (Eci and exedrce, saloons ; 9. 
Pinacotheca, or picture-gallery ; 10. Bibliotheca, library ; 11. 
Coenacida, rooms on the second story. The floors, sola, were 
frequently laid in mosaic, and the inner walls, parietes, lined 
with slabs of marble and pictures. The windows, fenestra;, 
were closed with wooden shutters ; and in the time of the 
Emperors with transparent stone (lapis specularis, mica) and 
glass (vitrum). The ceilings were flat, and divided by the 
intersection of the beams and planks into hollows (lacunaria, 
laquearia), which were often carved and gilt. 

Baths, balnece, thermce. The Komans at first used baths 
but seldom, and only for health and cleanliness ; but after- 
wards as a luxury. They were taken after exercise, and pre- 
vious to the principal meal, cozna, and sometimes after eat- 
ing, to promote digestion. The principal parts of the public 
thermal were : 1. Vestibulum, in which the servants waited, 
and the balneator, or keeper, received the quadrans paid by 
each visitor; 2. Apodyterium, or undressing-room; 3. Frigi- 
darium, the cold-bath; 4. Tepidarium, the tepid-bath, or a 
chamber heated with air; 5. Caldarium, the warm-bath, 
warmed by hypocausta, heating-apparatus. After bathing, 
the Romans made use of instruments called strigiles, or 
scrapers, for removing the oil with which they were anointed, 
and the impurities of the skin, and lintea, towels. 

Amusements. 

The Romans before bathing took various kinds of exercise, 
one of which was tennis, played with a small ball, pila, or 
with the follis, an inflated ball of leather. During the in- 
tervals of drinking, they played at various games of chance, 
among which were ale a, dice, played with tali (huckle-bones) 



142 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 

sometimes numbered on four sides (1, 3, 4, 6) and the ends 
left blank, or with tesserce, dice made of ivory, bone, or wood, 
and numbered on six sides, as with us ; at first three dice 
were used, but afterwards two. The dice-box was called 
fritillus. The board, alveus, alveolus, or abacus, was divided 
by twelve lines, and was frequently used for playing with 
two sets of latrunculi or draughtsmen, fifteen on each side ; 
this game, Indus duodecim scriptorum, nearly agreed with our 
backgammon, and the Indus calculorum was similar to chess. 
At drinking-bouts {commissationes) a president was chosen 
by throwing the dice, named magister vel arbiter bibendi, or 
rex convivii. 

Funerals. 

The Romans, like the Greeks, paid great attention to funeral 
rites, as they believed the souls of the unburied could not 
enter the abodes of the dead. On the death of a friend, the 
nearest relative closed the eyes and mouth of the deceased, 
and called on him by name (conclamare) , exclaiming have or 
vale ; the corpse was then washed and anointed with oil and 
perfumes by slaves, who belonged to the undertakers, libiti- 
narii, and a small coin was placed in the mouth of the corpse 
to pay the ferryman of Hades (Charon) ; the body was then 
clothed in its shroud (the best toga the deceased had worn 
when alive ; magistrates in the prsetexta), and laid out in 
the vestibule, with feet towards the door, and a branch of 
cypress was placed in front of the house. The corpse was 
usually carried out for burial on the eighth day after death. 
The funeral procession was formed of musicians (cornicines, 
&c), mourning women (prceficos), who sang a dirge (mimi 
sometimes attended), slaves ; and persons bearing the ima- 
gines (representing the ancestors of the deceased) preceded 
the corpse, which was carried on a couch (lectlca or feretrum), 
followed by the relatives of the deceased. If the deceased 
were a noble, the procession stopped at the Forum, where a 
laudatio was delivered. The corpse was then carried off and 
buried (humare, sepelire), or burned (cremare) on a pile of 
wood {pyra or rogus), sprinkled, when burning, with in- 



PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS. 143 

cense, &c. When burnt down, the embers were soaked with 
wine, and the bones and ashes of the deceased collected and 
placed in an urn (urna), which was deposited in a* tomb 
(sepulchrum). The mourning and solemnities continued for 
nine days, at the end of which a sacrifice, Novendiale, took 
place, and games and shows of gladiators were sometimes 
held in honour of the deceased. 



Names. 

To mark the different gentes and familiae, and to distin- 
guish individuals of the same family, the Roman citizens had 
three names: the first (prcenomen), as Quintus, indicated 
the individual; the second (nomen), as Horatius, the gens 
or clan; the third (cognomen), as Flaccus, the stirps or 
familia, family. A fourth name (agnomen) was sometimes 
added, for some illustrious action or remarkable event, e. g. 
Scipio was called Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage 
and Africa. The daughters bore the name of the gens, Cor- 
nelia, Julia, Livia, Tullia, &c. The following are some of 
the contractions used for the praenomina : Ap., Appius ; A., 
Aulus; C, Caius; Cn., Cneius; D., Decimus; K., Kaeso; L., 
Lucius ; M., Marcus ; M\, Manius ; N., Numerius ; P., Pub- 
lius; Q., Quintus; Ser., Servius; Sex., Sextus; Sp., Spuriua; 
T., Titus ; Ti., Tiberius. 



ANCIENT GEEEK WKITEES. 



POETS. 
Epic. 

HOMER flourished about b.c. 900. Birth-place uncertain, 
seven cities contended for the honour. 1 Works : Iliad, twenty- 
four books ; Odyssey, twenty-four books. 

HESIOD, born at Ascra, in Bceotia. Flourished about 
B.C. 800. "Works extant: ©foyoiaa, Theogony ; 'Aonxj 'Hpaxheovs, 
Shield of Hercules ; and v Epya xai 'H^'pat, Works and Days. 

Tragic. 2 

AESCHYLUS, born at Eleusis, in Attica, b.c. 525 ; died at 
Gela, in Sicily, b. c. 456, aged sixty-nine. Works : seventy 
tragedies, of which only seven are extant, viz. : Prometheus 
Chained, Seven Chiefs against Thebes, The Persians, Tht 
Supplianti, Agamemnon, The Choephoroz, The Eumenides. 

SOPHOCLES, born at Athens, b.c. 495 ; died in his nine- 
tieth year, b. c. 406. Works : 130 plays, of which only seven 
are extant, viz.: Antigone, Electra, Trachinioz, Ajax, Philoc- 
tetes, (Edipus Tyrannus, (Edipus in Colonus. 

1 " Septem urbes certant de stirpe insignis Homeri, 

Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodos, Argos, Athense." 

2 The DHhyrauibs, or choral hymns chanted at the Dionysia (vide 
Antiq.), fi>st assumed the form of Tragedy, when Thespis, about B.C. 
535, introduced between them the representation Spa/ia iizctcroStov, of a 
story or plot by a single actor (v-rroKpiTfjs), who was separated from the 
chorus, and played many parts in succession. iEsehylus added a 
second actor, and thus founded the dialogue. Sophocles introduced a 
third actor. 

(144) 



ANC1EJNT GREEK WRITERS. J 45 

EURIPIDES, bom at Salamis, b.c. 480; died at Mace- 
donia, B.C. 40G, in his seventy-fifth year. He is said to have 
written ninety-two plays, by some ; by others, seventy-five, 
nineteen of which have reached us, viz. : Medea, Electra, 
Orestes, Iphigema in Aulis, Iphigenla in Tauris, Andromache, 
Trojan Captives, Hecuba, Ion, The Suppliants, Children of 
Hercules, Phoenician Damsels, Raging Hercules, Alcestis, Hip- 
pclytus, Rhesus, The Bacchanalians, Helen, The Cyclops. 

Comic. 

ARISTOPHANES, born at Athens, about b.c 444; died 
about b. c. 380. Works : fifty-four plays, of which eleven 
remain perfect: Acharnians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Peace, 
Birds, Thesmophoriazusce, or Feasts of Ceres, Jjysistrata, 
Frogs, Ecclesiazusce, or Female Orators, Plutus. 

The other writers of the " Old Comedy of Greece" were 
Epicharmus, born b.c. 540; Phormus, about b.c 480; Crates, 
b.c 450; Cratinns, b.c 445 ; Eupolis, b.c, 434, 

The poets of the "Middle Comedy" were Antiphanes, B.C. 
380 ; Eubulus, Alexis, Anaxandrides, and Araros, b. c 375 ; 
Timocles, b.c 336. Of the "New Comedy" were, 

MENANDER, born at Athens, b.c 342, educated under 
Theophrastus ; died b.c 291. Works: upwards of 100 come- 
dies, of which only fragments remain. 

PHILEMON, born at Soli or Syracuse, flourished about 
b. c. 330, Works : ninety-seven comedies, of which only frag- 
ments are extant ; the other writers were Philippides, Di- 
philus, Apollodorus flourished b.c 336 to 300; PosicUppus, 
b.c. 289. 

Lyric. 

ANACREON, born at Teos, in Ionia, about b.c 563; died, 
aged eighty-five, about b.c 478. Works: Of five books, sixty- 
eight poems and fragments are extant ; many of the odes are 
considered spurious, 

SAPPHO, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about 
b.c. 610. Her poems formed nine books, of which only frag- 
ments are extant. 
13 



146 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 

ALCiEUS, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, nourished about 
b. c. 604. He is said to have been the inventor of the " bar- 
biton," or harp. Of his works, only a few fragments of war- 
songs remain to us. 

PINDAR, born at Thebes, in Bceotia, B.C. 522; died, pro» 
bably in his eightieth year, b.c. 442. Works: Eplnicia, or 
triumphal odes describing the four national games of the 
Greeks ; four books entire, and numerous fragments, remain. 

The other lyric poets, fragments of some of whose worka 
we have, are Alcman, b.c. 670; Stesichorus, b.c. 612; Simo- 
nides, b.c. 540; Bacchylides, b.c. 452. 

Pastoral. 

THEOCRITUS, born at Syracuse, flourished b. c. 284-280. 
Works : Thirty poems known as Idyls, twenty-two epigrams, 
and a few fragments, are extant, which may be divided into 
pastoral, lyric, epic, mimetic, and epigrammatic 

BION, born near Smyrna, flourished about B.C. 280. Of 
his works, fragments are alone extant. 

MOSCHUS, born at Syracuse, flourished about b.c. 250. 
Of his works, only four of his Idyls, an epigram, and three 
small fragments, are extant. 



PROSE WRITERS. 

Historians. 

HERODOTUS, born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, b.c 484; 
died subsequent to b.c. 408, exact period unknown. His 
history, which embraces a period of about 240 years (from 
the time of Cyrus), is divided into nine books, called by the 
names of the Muses. 

THUCYDIDES, born at Athens, b.c. 471; died in exile, 
probably at Scaptesyle, in Thrace, b.c. 391, aged eighty. 
Works : History of the Peloponnesian War, in eight books, 
which he brought down to the twenty-first year, and Xenc- 
phon concluded to the twenty-eighth. 



ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 147 

XENOPIION, born about b.c. 445, educated in the school 
of Socrates ; died about B.C. 359, beyond ninety years of age, 
probably at Corinth. Works : Anabasis, in. seven books ; 
Hellenica (the continuation of the history of Thucydides), in 
seven books ; Cyropaedia (memoirs of Cyrus), in eight books ; 
Memorabilia, in four books ; Agesilaus ; The Athenian Re- 
public ; The Lacedaemonian Republic ; De re Equestri ; Hip- 
parchicus ; Cynegeticus ; Hiero ; Apology of Socrates; Sym- 
posium ; (Economicus. 

POLYBIUS, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about b.c. 
203 ; died b. c. 121, in his eighty-second year. Work : A 
Universal History, in forty books (of which only five remain 
entire), commencing b. c. 220. 

DIODORUS SICULUS, born at Agyrium, in Sicily, flou- 
rished b. c. 60-30. Work : A History of Egypt, Persia, Syria, 
Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, in forty books, of which 
fifteen and some fragments are extant. 

DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS flourished b.c. 29-7. 
Work : Antiquities of Rome, in twenty-two books (of which 
eleven now remain), comprising the History of Rome for 312 
years down to b.c. 264. 

PLUTARCH, born at Chseronea, in Boeotia; died about 
a. d. 140. He was sent on an embassy to Rome, where he 
opened a school. He was honoured by Trajan with the ap- 
pointment of governor of Illyricum. Works : Lives of Illus- 
trious Men, Moralia. 

Orators. 

PERICLES, born at Athens, about b.c. 499; died b.c. 429. 
The first Greek orator, surnamed, from the grandeur of his 
style, the Olympian. 

LYSIAS, born at Athens, b.c. 458; died b.c. 378, aged 
eighty. Of his orations, thirty-four are extant, remarkable 
for their purity of style. 

ISOCRATES, born at Athens, b.c. 436; died b.c. 338, in 
his ninety-eighth year, being unable to survive the blow the 
liberty of his country received at the battle of Chaeronea. 



148 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 

As Isocrates was prevented by timidity from addressing the 
national assemblies, he opened a school in Athens, where he 
distinguished himself by the number, character, and fame of 
his pupils. Only twenty-one of his orations have come down 
to us ; he is said to have written sixty. 

DEMOSTHENES, born at Athens, b.c. 382; died at Ca- 
lauria, by poison, b. c. 322. Of his orations, which have been 
always celebrated as the most perfect models of eloquence, 
sixty-one are extant, viz. : seventeen political orations, forty- 
two judicial, and two show speeches. 

ISiEUS flourished about b. c. 360. He was the instructor 
of Demosthenes. Works : sixty-four orations, of which eleven 
are now remaining. 

^ESCHINES, born b.c. 389; died at Samos or Rhodes, 
B.C. 314. Works: nine epistles and three orations, of which 
the orations alone are extant. 

The other Greek orators are Demades and Hyperides ; they 
flourished about b.c. 335. 



Medical Writers. 

HIPPOCRATES, born in the island of Cos, about b.c. 460; 
died at Larissa, in Thessaly, b. c. 357, in his 104th year. Of 
his works, more than sixty in number, the majority being 
written by his disciples and followers, only a few are genuine : 
Pracenotiones, or Prognosticon ; Aphorismi ; De Morbis Popu- 
laribus, or Epidemiorum ; De Ratione Victus in Morbis Acutis, 
or De Diceta Acutorum; De Aere, Aquis, et Locis; De Capitis 
Vulneribus. 

GALEN, born at Pergamum, a.d. 130; died about a. d. 200. 
Works, under the name of Galen : eighty-three Treatises 
{genuine) ; nineteen, genuineness doubted ; forty-five spurious , 
nineteen Fragments ; fifteen Commentaries on the works of 
Hippocrates. 



ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 149 

MATHEMATICIANS. 

EUCLID flourished at Alexandria, in the time of the first 
Ptolemy, b.c. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alexan- 
drine Mathematical School. Works extant: The Elements, 
in thirteen books, the fourteenth and fifteenth being added 
by Hypsicles ; The Data, containing 100 propositions ; The 
Division of the Scale ; a Treatise on Optics, &c. 

ARCHIMEDES, born at Syracuse, b.c. 287; slain at the 
taking of Syracuse, b. c. 212. Works extant : On Equipon- 
derants and Centres of Gravity ; The Quadrature of the Para- 
bola ; On the Sphere and Cylinder; The Dimension of the 
Circle; Spirals; Conoids and Spheroids; The Arenarius ; On 
Floating Bodies; Lemmata. Archimedes is said to have con- 
structed engines used for military and naval purposes, and 
many machines, among which was the water-screw ; but his 
most famous invention was a kind of orrery, representing 
the movements of the heavenly bodies. 



GEOGRAPHERS. 

STRABO, born at Amasia, in Pontus, about b.c. 54; died 
about a. d. 24. Works : a work on Geography, in seventeen 
books ; this is entire, with the exception of the seventh book. 
Strabo wrote a history, in forty-three books (in continuation 
of that of Polybius), which is lost. 

PAUSANIAS, born in Lydia(? ), flourished about a. d. 170. 
Works : Periegesis, or Itinerary of Greece, in ten books. 



FABULIST. 

iESOP flourished about b.c 570. He was originally a 
elave, but received his freedom from Iadmon, his master 
The Fables now extant in prose, attributed to iEsop, are said 
to be spurious. • 
13* 



150 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 



SATIRIC WRITER. 

LUCIAN, born at Samosata, in Syria, about a.d. 120; died 
about the end of the century. Works : Dialogues, comprising 
The Dialogues of the Gods, twenty-six in number ; Jupiter 
Convicted; Vitarum Audio, or Sale of Philosophers ; Thi 
Fishermen, &c. ; The Dialogues of the Dead, comprising Icaro 
Menippus, Charon, &c. 



CRITIC. 



LONGINUS flourished about a. d. 250. He opened a school 
at Athens, in which he taught philosophy, criticism, rhetoric, 
and grammar; but afterwards went to the East, where he 
became the tutor of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, on whose 
capture he was put to death, a. d. 273. Work : On the Sub- 
lime, riept "t^ovj, a great part of which is extant. 



PHILOSOPHERS. 

THALES, the Ionic Philosopher, born at Miletus, b. c. 636 ; 
died about B.C. 546. One of the founders in Greece of the 
study of philosophy. He maintained water was the first 
principle of all things. 

PYTHAGORAS, born at Samos ; flourished b.c. 540-510 
He travelled in Egypt and the East, and finally settled at 
Crotona, in Italy, whence he is called the Italic Philosopher. 
The whole discipline of his sect is represented as tending to 
a lofty serenity and self-possession. They believed in the 
transmigration of souls ; and it was one of their maxims, that 
" every thing should not be told to every body ;" hence all 
that was done and taught by the members was kept a pro- 
found secret to all but themselves. 



ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 151 

SOCRATES, born near Athens, B.C. 469; died B.C. 399. 
Socrates was the first who turned his thoughts to the subject 
of Ethics ; in discussing which, he employed the dialectic or 
interrogative system, termed from him the Socratic. Not- 
withstanding his efforts to promote the welfare of mankind, 
he was accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, and was 
sentenced to drink poison. 

PLATO, born at Athens, b.c. 429 or 428; died b.c. 347. 
He was the founder of the Academic School, and in his 
writings are preserved the doctrines of Socrates, whose dis- 
ciple he was. The writings of Plato have come down to us 
complete ; they are in the form of dialogues, which are closely 
connected with one another, and may be divided into three 
series. 

ARISTOTLE, born at Stagira, in Macedonia, B.C. 384; 
died b. c 322, at Chalcis, in Euboea. He was the founder of 
the Peripatetic School, so called, either from his delivering 
his lectures in the shady walks (rtsplriatot,) surrounding the 
Lyceum, or while walking up and down (rtcptrtarw). His 
numerous writings comprise works on, 1. Dialectics and 
Logic; 2. Tlieoretical Philosophy, Mathematics, Natural His- 
tory, &c. ; 3. Practical Philosophy or Politics, Ethics, &c. ; 
4. Works on Art. 

ZENO, the founder of Stoic Philosophy, born at Citium, in 
Cyprus. Birth and death uncertain. Flourished about B.C. 
280. After many years' study, and having sufficiently deve- 
loped his peculiar philosophical system, he opened his school 
in one of the Porticoes at Athens {Stoa Pcecile), and hence 
his disciples were called Stoics. The Stoic philosophy recog- 
nised real good only in virtue, and enjoined a life in accord- 
ance with nature. 

EPICURUS, the founder of the Epicurean School, born in 
the island of Samos, B.C. 342; died b.c. 270. He is said to 
have written 300 volumes, of which the principal was a work 
on Nature, in thirty-seven books. The theory of the Epicu- 
reans represented pleasure as constituting the greatest hap- 
piness, and must therefore be the chief end of man. 



ANCIENT BOMAN WBITEBS. 



POETS. 

N. B. — The chief works of the writers are mentioned, though 
all may not come under the same classified heads. 

Epic. 

ENNIUS (Quintus Ennius), born at Rudise, in Calabria, 
B.C. 239. He lived on intimate terms with Scipio Africanus, 
and died b. c. 169, aged seventy. The Romans regarded 
Ennius as the "father of their poetry." Work: Fragments 
only extant, though Ennius wrote Annates (i. e. a history of 
Rome, from its foundation to his own times), an epic poem, 
in eighteen books. 

VIRGIL (Pub. Virgilius Maro), born 15th of Oct., b.c. 70, 
at Andes, a small village near Mantua; educated at Cremona 
and Mediolanum [Milan) ; died 22d of Sept., b.c 19, in his 
fifty-first year, at Brundusium (Brindisi). Works : JEneid, 
in twelve books ; Bucolics, ten short poems (Pastorals) ; 
Georgics, an agricultural poem, in four books. 

SILIUS (C. S. Italicus), born about a.d. 25; died about 
his seventy-fifth year. Work: Punica, in seventeen books.- 

LUC AN (M. Anngeus Lucanus), born at Corduba, in Spain, 
a.d. 39 ; died a.d. 65, in his twenty-sixth year. Work: The 
Pharsalia, in ten books, alone extant. 

VALERIUS FLACCUS flourished in the reign of Vespa- 
sian ; he was a native of Padua, and died a. d. 88. Work : 
Argonautica, an unfinished poem, in eight books. 

STATIUS (P. Papinius), born at Neapolis, about a.d. 61 ; 
died about a.d. 96. Works: Theuaid, in twelve books; Silvce, 
a collection of occasional poems, in five books. 

(152) 



ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 153 

Elegiac. 

OVID (P. Ovidius Naso), born at Sulmo, in the country of 
the Peligni, 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from 
an ancient family, and enjoyed the favour of Augustus, by 
whose edict (a.d. 9) he was suddenly exiled, without even a 
trial, to Tomi, a town near the mouths of the Danube, where 
he died, in the sixtieth year of his age, a.d. 18. Works: 
Amores, three books ; Epistles, twenty-one in number ; Ars 
Amatoria; Remedia Amoris, one book; Metamorphoses, fifteen 
books ; Fasti or Roman Calendar, twelve books, six only ex- 
tant; Tristia, five books (written at Tomi); Epistolos ex Ponio, 
four books; Minor Poems; Nux, or The Complaint of the 
Nut-tree ; Ibis, a satire, &c. 

TIBULLUS (Albius Tibullus), born about B.C. 54; died 
about B.C. 18 ; was of the Equestrian order: his patron was 
Messala. Work : Elegies, four books ; the genuineness of 
several poems in the third and fourth books is doubted. 

PROPERTIUS (Sex. Aurelius), born about b.c. 51; year 
of death unknown. He enjoyed the friendship of Maecenas, 
Virgil, and Ovid. Work : Elegies, four books. 

Lyric. 

HORACE (Q, Horatius Flaccus), born at Venusia, in Apu- 
lia, Dec. 8, B.C. 65. His father was a collector of taxes, and 
paid the greatest attention to his son's education, who fre- 
quented the best schools at Rome, and visited Athens to com- 
plete his education. He lived on most intimate terms with 
Maecenas, a Roman knight, and obtained the patronage of 
Augustus. Horace died Nov. 17, b. c. 8, aged fifty-six. 
Works : Odes, five books ; Satires, two books ; Epistles, two 
books ; a poem, De Arte Poetica. 

CATULLUS (Valerius Catullus), born at Verona, B.C. 87; 
died about b.c. 47. Works extant: 116 poems, on various 
topics, composed in different styles and metres. 



154 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 

Tragic. 

LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, the earliest Roman poet. Frag- 
ments of his work are extant. 

SENECA (L. Annaeus, vide infr.). Ten of his tragedies 
are extant ; they are written in iambic senarii, interspersed 
with choral parts. 

Comic 

PLAUTUS (T. Accius Plantus), born at Sarsina, a village 
in Umbria, about b. c. 254 ; died b. c. 184, aged seventy. 
Works : twenty-one Comedies, of which twenty are extant. 

TERENCE (P. Terentius Afer), born at Carthage, b.c. 
195 ; died b. c. 159, in his thirty-sixth year. Works : six 
Comedies, viz.: 1. Andria; 2. Hecyra ; 3. Heauton-timorou- 
menos, or "the Self-tormentor;" 4. Eunuchus ; 5. Phormio ; 
6. Adelphi, i. e. " the Brothers." He is said to have trans- 
lated 108 of Menander's Comedies when he went to Greece. 



Didactic. 

LUCRETIUS (T. Lucretius Carus), born at Rome, b.c. 95; 
perished by his own hand, B.C. 51, in his forty-fourth year 
Work : De Rerum Naturd, in six books, containing upwards 
of 7400 lines. 



SATIRISTS. 



HORACE, vide supra. 

PERSIUS (A. Persius Flaccus), born at Volaterrae, in 
Etruria, 4th of Dec, a. d. 34 ; died 24th of Nov., a. d. 62, 
aged twenty-seven. Work extant : six Satires. 

JUVENAL (Decimus Junius Juvenalis), born at Aquinum, 
in the reign of Claudius. Works extant : fifteen Satires. 



ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 155 



EPIGRAMMATIST. 

MARTIAL (Marcus Valerius Martialis), born at Bilbilis, 
in Spain, a.d. 43. He resided for thirty-five years at Rome, 
where he obtained the patronage of the Emperors Titus and 
Domitian. He died at Bilbilis, about a.d. 104. Work: Ep% 
grammata, fourteen books. 



FABULIST 



PHiEDRUS, originally a slave, brought from Thrace or 
Macedonia to Rome, but eventually became a freedman of 
Augustus. Work: The Fables of JEsop, translated, with 
some alterations, into Latin iambics. 



HISTORIANS. 

CESAR (Caius Julius Caesar), born 12th of July, b.c. 100; 
murdered 15th of March, b. c. 44, being stabbed, in the Senate- 
house, with twenty-three wounds : among the conspirators was 
his intimate friend Brutus. Works : Commentarii de Bello 
Gallico, in seven books (an eighth is added by another hand) ; 
and Commentarii de Bello Civili, in three books. The books 
De Bello Alexandrino, Africano, and Hispaniensi, are spurious. 

CORNELIUS NEPOS flourished in the time of Julius 
Caesar. Work extant : Yitoz Excellentium Imperatorum, a 
short biography of twenty-two Grecian and two Carthaginian 
generals. 

SALLUST (C. Sallustius Crispus), born b.c. 86, at Amiter* 
num, in the Sabini ; died b. c. 34. Works : Catillna, a his- 
tory of Catiline's conspiracy ; Jugurtha, a history of the wars 
of the King of Numidia ; Histories, fragments alone extant. 

LIVY (Titus Livius), born at Patavium, b.c. 59; died 
k. d. 17. Work : History of Borne, from its foundation to the 



156 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 

death of Drusus, b.c. 9, in 142 books, of which thirty-five are 
extant, viz., books 1-10, and 21-45, besides fragments and 
notices of contents [Epitomce). 

VALERIUS MAXIMUS flourished during the time of Ti- 
berius. Work: Factorum Dictorumque Memorabilium libri ix., 
a collection of facts and anecdotes, &c. 

TACITUS (Caius Cornelius Tacitus), born a.d. 57, at In- 
teramna(?). Works: De Situ, Moribus, Populisque Germa- 
nice ; Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law ; Historice ; 
Annates, a history of Rome, from the death of Augustus to 
that of Nero ; Dialogus de Oratoribus (? ). 

CURTIUS (Quintus Curtius Rufus) flourished in the reign 
of Vespasian (?). Work: De Rebus Gestis Alexandri Magni, 
in ten books, of which two books are wanting. 

SUETONIUS (Caius Suetonius Tranquillus) flourished 
during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Works extant: 
Vitas xii. Imperatorum ; De IllUstribus Grammaiicis ; De 
Claris Rhetoribus. 

FLORUS (Lucius Annseus Florus) flourished in the time 
of Trajan (?). Work: Epitome de Rebus Gestis Romanorum, 
four books. 

JUSTIN (M. Junianus Justinus) flourished under the An- 
tonines. Work : An abridgment of the Historice Philippicce 
of Trogus Pompeius, in forty-four books. 

EUTROPIUS flourished under Constantine and Valens. 
Work : Breviarium Historice Romance, in tea books, 



ORATOR, &n. 

CICERO (Marcus Tullius Cicero), born b.c. 106; murdered 
b. c. 43, at the instigation of the Triumviri. Works : of Ora- 
tions, fifty-six are extant. Rhetorical works : De Inventions, 
or Rhetor ica ; De Oratore, three books ; Brutus, or De Claris 
Oratoribus; Orator ad Brutum, or De Optimo Genere Dicendi ; 
Topica, a work on evidence; De Partione Oratoria; De Optimo 
Genere Oratorum. Philosophical works: De Republica, in six 



ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 157 

books, of which Somnium Scipionis has been preserved ; De 
Legibas, three books ; Academica, divided first into two, and 
afterwards into four books, one of which, and a fragment of 
the second, we possess; De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, five 
books ; Disputationes Tusculance, five books ; De Natura Deo- 
rum, three books ; De Divinatione, two books ; De Fato, a 
fragment ; Cato Major sive de Senectute ; Lcelius sive de Amir 
cilia ; Paradoxa Stoicorum ; De Officiis, three books. Epis- 
tolary writings : Epistolm ad Diversos, sixteen books ; Epis- 
toloz ad T. Pomponiam Atticum, sixteen books ; Epistolai ad 
Quintum Fratrem, three books. 



EPISTOLARY WRITERS. 

ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius Atticus), born B.C. 109 ; died 
in his seventy-seventh year, b. c. 32. He corresponded with 

CICERO (vide supra). 

PLINY (Caius Plinius Csecilius Secundus, surnamed the 
Younger), born a.d. 61; died a.d. 114. Work: Epistolce, in 
ten books. Of his Orations, the Panegyricus on Trajan is 
alone extant. 



WRITERS ON PHILOSOPHICAL SUBJECTS, &c. 

SENECA (Lucius Annasus Seneca), born about a.d. 1; 
died a.d. 65, in the reign of Nero. Works: 124 Letters on 
Philosophical Subjects ; QuoBstiones Naturales, seven books. 

CICERO (vide supra). 

Natural History. 

PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus Major, the Elder), born 
a.d. 23 ; died in the eruption of Vesuvius, a.d. 79, aged fifty- 
six. Work : Historia Naturalis, in thirty-seven books, alone 
~emains of his numerous writings. 
14 



158 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 

Agriculture. 

CATO (Marcus Porcius Cato Censorius), born B.C. 234; 
died b. c. 149, aged eighty-five. "Works : A Treatise on Agri- 
culture, the most ancient Latin prose work extant ; Origines, 
a history of Rome from B.C. 753-151. 

VARRO (Marcus Terentius Varro), born B.C. 116; died 
B.C. 28. Works: De Lingua Latina, a" fragment; Be Re 
Rustica, a fragment alone extant. 

COLUMELLA (Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella), con- 
temporary of Seneca. Work : De Re Rustica. 

Architecture. 

VITRUVIUS (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio), born at Verona; 
nourished in the time of Caesar and Augustus. Work: De 
Architectura, in ten books. 

Medicine. 

CELSUS (Aulus Cornelius Celsus) flourished in the reigns 
of Augustus and Tiberius. Work: De Medicina, in eight 
books. 

Grammar and Criticism. 

QUINTILIAN (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), born a.d. 40; 
died about a. d. 118. Works : Institutiones Oratorios, in twelve 
books ; a collection of Declamations is by some also ascribed 
to Quintilian. 

AULUS GELLIUS flourished in the time of the Anto- 
nines. Work : Nodes Atticce, in twenty books, of which tho 
eighth is wanting. 



SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. 



I. The IONIC SCHOOL, founded by Thales, from 

WHICH SPRUNG I 

1. THE SOCRATIC SCHOOL, founded by Socrates. 
Disciples : Xenophon, iEschines, Phaedo, Euclid, Plato, Alci- 
biades, &c. 

2. CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus. Flou- 
rished about b.c. 370. 

3. MEGARIC or ERISTIC SCHOOL, founded by Euclid 
of Megara, b.c 399. 

4. ELI AC or ERETRIAC SCHOOL, founded about b.c. 
395, by Phaedo of Elis, whose doctrines were similar to those 
of Socrates. 

5. THE ACADEMIC SECT, founded by Plato. 

6. THE PERIPATETIC SECT, founded by Aristotle, 
succeeded by Theophrastus, Straton, Lycon, Ariston, &c. 

7. THE CYNIC SECT, founded by Antisthenes. Dis- 
ciples : Diogenes Crates, and Hipparchia, his wife. 

8. THE STOIC SECT, founded by Zeno, succeeded by 
Cleanthes, Ariston, Antipater, &c. 

II. The ITALIC SCHOOL, founded by Pythagoras, 

FROM WHICH SPRUNG: 

1. THE ELEATIC SCHOOL, founded by Xenophanes. 
Flourished b.c 540-500. Disciples: Parmenides, Zeno ; 
both of Elea, in Italy, Democritus, Protagoras, &fc. 

2. THE HERACLITEAN SECT, founded by Hera- 
clitus. Flourished b.c 513. 

3. THE EPICUREAN SECT, founded by Epicurus. 

4. THE SCEPTIC SECT, founded by Pyrrhon. 

(159) 



TOPOGRAPHY OP ATHENS. 



ATHENiE, the Capital of Attica, is said to have been 
founded by Cecrops, about b. c. 1556 ; it was called from its 
founder Cecropia, and afterwards Athenae (al 'Afloat), in 
honour of Minerva ('Advpy), the protectress of the city. It 
was divided into two parts, 1. THE ACROPOLIS, or UPPER 
CITY {axportoUi, Kexportia, 57 ow>co rtoUs), and THE LOWER 
CITY (rj xatm 7t6u$). The Acropolis or Citadel was a 
steep rock, about 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 500 feet 
broad, surrounded by a wall, and approached from the W. by 
the Propylsea (rtportiAaia), a colonnade of Pentelic marble. 
The summit was covered with temples, statues, &c. The 
most beautiful of the temples were, 1. the Parthenon, 
sacred to Athene, with a statue of the goddess by Phidias, 
thirty-seven feet high, and carved in gold and ivory. 2. 
Erechtheum, or temple of Neptune, with the temple of 
Athene Polias and the Pandroseum. Between the Par- 
thenon and Erechtheum stood the colossal bronze statue 
of Athene Promachos (seventy feet high, whose helmet and 
spear were first visible from the sea), cast by Phidias. 

THE LOWER CITY was built in the plain round the 
Acropolis, and was surrounded by walls ; the chief gates of 
which were: the Thriasian or Dipylon, leading from the 
inner to the outer Ceramicus and the Academia ; and the 
Piraean gate, leading to the Piraeeus. The chief districts: 
Colyttus, on the N. of the Acropolis; Melite, on the E. ; 
Limn ae, on the S. ; Ceramicus (Kfpo^iEixo?, or the "Potter's 
Quarter"), in the W. 

Hills: Areiopagus, W., and Pnyx, S.W., of the Acro- 
polis. 

(160) 



TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 161 

The chief buildings of the Lower City were: 1. The 
Temple of Olympian Zeus ('Oxv^rttfiov), founded by 
Pisistratus; 2. The Temple of Theseus (&rjaslov), erected 
by Conon, and was used as a sanctuary for slaves ; 3. UavOeov, 
a temple dedicated to all the gods, a magnificent building, 
supported by 120 marble pillars; 4. The Temple of the 
Eight Winds (vide page 172), surmounted by a weather- 
cock; 5. The Odeum ('QShw), built by Pericles, and origin- 
ally intended for musical festivals, but afterwards used as a 
court of justice ; 6. The Bouleuterion, Bov'Ksvtripiou, or 
Senate-house; 7. The Prytaneum, Upv-tartlov, or place 
of assembly of the Prytanes (vide Gr. Antiq.); 8. The Great- 
Theatre of Dionysus, S.E. of the Acropolis; 9. Por- 
ticoes (2tW), or covered walks, in which seats (ifs'Spac) 
were placed. The Porticoes were sometimes adorned with 
paintings by the best masters, as, 10. The Poecile (atoa 
7toixi"kri), N.W. of the Acropolis, adorned with frescoes of the 
battle of Marathon; 11. 'Ayopat, corresponding to the Fora 
at Rome, places both for public assembly and all matters of 
traffic and public business; 12. The Pnyx (n^i), W. of 
the Acropolis, the place in which the ancient assemblies 
were held. 

Without the City: TheAcademia, where Plato taught; 
The Cynosarges, where Antisthenes taught; The Ly- 
ceum, where Aristotle instructed his disciples, the Peri- 
patetics; The Stadium, for public games. 



14* 



TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME 



ROMA, the Capital of Italy, is said to have been a colony 
frnn Alba Longa, and to have been founded by Romulus, 
B.C. 753. The original city comprised only the Mons Pala- 
tinus ; it was surrounded by walls, which followed the line 
of the Pomoerium, a kind of symbolical wall, the course of 
which was marked by stone pillars. On the increase of the 
inhabitants of the city, one hill after another was occupied, 
to the number of seven (vide pages 28, 168). Servius Tullius 
divided the city into four regiones or districts, which re- 
mained unchanged till the time of Augustus, who divided 
the city into fourteen regiones. 

THE FORA AND CAMPI. The Forum was an open 
space of ground of an oblong form, in which the people met for 
the transaction of business, or used for markets. The prin- 
cipal Fora at Rome were: 1. Forum Romanum, or simply 
the Forum (the narrow or upper end of which was occupied 
by the Comitium) ; it was surrounded by public buildings, 
and adorned with statues of celebrated men, &c. 2. Forum 
Julii or Caesaris. 3. Forum Augusti. 4. Forum Tra- 
jan i. The CAMPI were large open spaces of ground 
covered with grass, planted with trees, and adorned with 
works of art. The chief was the Campus Martius, or 
" Plain of Mars," where the Roman youth exercised. 

There are said to have been 215 streets in Rome ; Visa 
and Vici were the broad streets, and Angiportus the narrow 
streets. The finest street was the Via Sacra, from the 
Colosseum to the Forum. The Suburra was a crowded dis- 
trict, betveen the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal. 

(162) 



TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 163 

TEMPLES. Of these, there are said to have been 400 in 
Rome, the chief of which were: 1. Templuin Jovis, or 
Capitolium, built on the Capitoline Hill. It was com- 
menced by Tarq. Priscus, and dedicated B.C. 507. Three 
times was it burnt down, and as often rebuilt, but with far 
greater splendour than before, by Domitian, about a.d. 81. 
The building was in the form of a square, 200 feet each side ; 
it was approached by 100 steps, and contained three temples 
{celled), consecrated to Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva. In the 
building were kept the Sibylline Books, and there the Con- 
suls, upon entering office, sacrificed, and took their vows. 
THE ARX, or Citadel of Rome, was situated near the 
Capitol, on the N. summit of the Capitoline Hill. 2. The 
Pantheum, in the Campus Martius, built by Agrippa, 
b. c. 27 ; it is still extant, and used as a Christian church 
( Santa Maria delta Boto?ida) . It is the largest circular build- 
ing of antiquity, and in form resembles the Colosseum, Re- 
gent's Park. The numerous temples were dedicated chiefly 
to Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Janus, Saturn, Fortuna, &c. 

The principal of the CIRC I, or places for chariot and horse- 
racing, was the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine 
and Aventine Hills ; it is said to have contained seats for 
385,000 persons. 

Among the THEATRES, the chief were: 1. The Thea- 
trum Pompeii, the first stone theatre built in Rome 
(b.c. 55); 2. Th. Marcelli. Of the AMPHITHEATRES, 
the Amphiteatrum Flavium, or Colosseum, was the 
most magnificent ; it was commenced by Vespasian and com- 
pleted by Titus, a. d. 80 ; it furnished seats capable of con- 
taining 87,000 persons. 

THERMAE. These buildings were distinct from the com- 
mon Balnese or baths, as, besides baths, they contained places 
for athletic games and sports, public halls, porticoes, libraries, 
&c. ; the chief were: 1. Thermae Antonini; 2. Th. Dio- 
cletiani; 3. Th. Constantini; 4. Th. Caracallse. 

THE BASILICiE were numerous at Rome ; they were 
buildings which served as courts of law, or places of meeting 
for merchants and men of business THE PORTICOES 



164 TOPOGRAPHY OP ROME. 

were covered walks, supported by columns, used as places of 
recreation or of public business. 

Of THE CURIAE or Senate-houses, the chief was Curia 
Hostilia, in the Forum ; it was used as the place of assem- 
bly for the senate until the time of Caesar. The other chief 
buildings were the Palaces (e. g. Palatium, Domus Aurea 
Nei'onis) ; the Triumphal Arches (Arcus Fabianus, Ar. 
Titi, Ar. Trajani, Ar. Constantini) ; Aqueducts {Aqua 
Appia, Aq. Marcia, Aq. Julia, Aq. Claudia); Monuments 
( Mausoleum Augusti, M. Hadriani) . Of the Columns were : 
Col. Rostrata, in the Forum, in honour of the naval vic- 
tory of Duilius, B.C. 260; Col. Trajani, 117 feet high, now 
surmounted by a statue of St. Peter. 

Of THE ROADS leading out of Rome, the principal were : 

1. "Via Appia, from the Porta Capena to Brundusium ; 

2. Via Flaminia, or Great North Road from the Porta 
Flaminia; 3. ViaAurelia, the Great Coast Road through 
Etruria and Liguria from the Porta Janiculensis, 



GEBEK AND ROMAN DIVISION 
OF TIME. 

GREEK. 

In early times, the Greeks divided their years by the recur- 
rence of the seasons, the rising and setting of the constella- 
tions Orion, the Pleiades, &c. Afterwards, having adopted 
the lunar month of about twenty-nine days and thirteen 
hours as a division of time, they endeavoured to adjust this 
to the solar year of 365 days five hours and forty-nine 
minutes, so that the seasons should regularly occur at the 
same periods of the calendar year, and that the end of the 
year should not be in the middle of a month. As the twelve 
lunar months contain only 354 days, intercalary or additional 
months {fiijvBs i^6%^oi) were inserted to make up the defi- 
ciency. The errors of the early calendars of Thales, Solon, 
and Cleostratus, were rectified by Me ton, who, b.c. 432, 
introduced a cycle of nineteen years, at the end of which 
period the position of the earth, with reference to the sun 
and moon, became the same. Calippus, and after him the 
celebrated Hip parch us (c. b.c. 150), corrected the slight 
inaccuracies of Meton's system. The cycle of Hipparchus 
consisted of 304 years, with 112 intercalary months. 

The twelve Attic months contained thirty and twenty-nine 
days alternately ; the former termed full (rttypws), the latter 
hollow [xol'koi), months. Their names, derived from the va- 
rious festivals held in them, were, 'Exato/xficuujv, Mttayertviw, 
Boqbpofiiuiv, Mcufmxtripiwv, Hvavstyuv, 'Avdiatqpiuv, IlofffiSfwv, 
Ta.y.ri'kbCiv, 'E?jxtyr{$o'kul>v, Mowv^twy, ©apy^twy, Sxtp/jo^optav. 1 

1 The following rough memorial lines will aid the memory in remem- 
bering the Attic months : — 

Ex — Me to, — Tut vi — Botj — XliSa — Maipdxtrjpi — Tloat tScov 
Tap — AvOeat — ""EyJxfyrj \\ Movi/fot — ®dpy — XxZpotyop. 

(165) 



166 GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME. 

The days of the month were divided into three decades or 
Bets of ten days, numbered from one to ten : thus the first of 
each decade (i. e. our first, eleventh, and twenty-first) was 
termed respectively, 7tpu>trj (sc. qfiipa), latdnsvov or apzofxtvov 
(ixyv6$) — rtpuitq irti 6ixa or fisoovpto$ — rtpioT'^ srt' eixddt, (pQCvovto^ 
kfflovtos, &c. But in the last decade the days were often 
reckoned backwards ; thus the first, was called 8 s xdtq $9lvov- 
t'oj, &c. The first day of the month was also termed T$ovpr[via. 
{new moon), the last hrj xai via, as belonging both to the old 
and the new month. 

The three Homeric divisions of the day were : 1. >fws 
(morning), afterwards divided into rtpco'C and 7fkrj9ov&>]$ rrjs 
dyopaj ; 2. juiffov ^ap or psoijiifipui (midday) ; 3. bt'ckiq (after- 
noon), afterwards divided into rtpoLa and 6-^ia. 

At Athens the years were called after the chief Archon 
(frtuwpj), at Sparta after the first Ephor, at Argos after the 
priestess of Juno. So at Carthage after the Suffetes, at Crete 
after the Proto-cosmus, and at Rome after the Consuls. 

Timseus of Sicily (c. B.C. 260) introduced the calculation 
by Olympiads, or periods of four years, commencing from 
B.C. 776 (vide Chronology). Thus, b. c. 775 would be the 
second year of the first Olympiad, b. c. 772 the second Olym- 
piad, &c. But as the Attic year began at the summer solstice, 
with the month Hecatonibseon (June and July), the first half 
of the first Olympiad would be the latter half of b.c. 776, and 
the latter half of the Olympiad the first of b. c. 775. 



ROMAN. 



The Roman year was probably at first divided into ten 
months, beginning with March. To this division, which is 
ascribed to Romulus, Numa is said to have added the two 
months January and February, to have assigned 355 days to 
the year, and to have adopted a cycle similar to Meton'a 
Julius Csesar, b. c. 46, employed Sosigenes, of Alexandria, 



GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME. 167 

and Flavius, a scribe, to revise the calendar. The intercalary 
months were set aside, the solar year was composed of 365 
days, and a leap-year inserted every four years. But, as this 
did not provide for the accumulation of the excess of minutes 
and seconds, Pope Gregory, a.d. 1582, ordered ten days, be- 
tween Oct. 4 and 15, in that year to be omitted. This " new 
style" was not recognized in England till a.d. 1752. The 
"old," or "Julian style," is still used in Russia. 

The names of the Roman months are Januarius, Februa- 
rius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Julius, Quintilis and Sextllis 
(changed to Julius and Augustus, in honour of the two first 
Caesars), September, Oetober, November, December. The 
number of days in each month was the same as our own ; 
but they were divided into Calends, Nones, and Ides. The 
Calends were the first of every month. In March, May, 
July, and October, the Nones fell on the 7th, in the other 
months on the 5th. The Ides were always eight days after 
the Nones, i. e. on the 13th or 15th. If the day of the month 
was not one of these three divisions, it was expressed by its 
distance from the following Calends, Nones, or Ides, as the 
case might be. Thus, the 31st of December was termed 
pridie (the day before) Calendas Januarias. But, as the 
Romans reckoned in both the days to and from which they 
calculated, Dec. 30 would be the third day before the Calends 
of January, usually expressed ante diem tertium (or a. d. iii.) 
Kal. Jan. The Romans (as well as the Greeks) used water- 
clocks (clepsydrce) and sun-dials {solaria) to measure the 
divisions of the day. 

The Consular aera was used in public affairs. In the time 
of the Caesars, the aera "ab urbe condita" (A. U. C), from 
the founding of Rome, dated by Varro B.C. 753 (by Cato, 
B.C. 752), was employed by historians and others. 






MISCELLANEA 



HILLS OF ROME. 

1. Palatinus, first occupied by the Latins. 

2. Capitolinus, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united 
to the Latins. 

3. Coelius, occupied by the Etruscans. 

4. Quirinalis, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united 
to the Latins. 

5. Aventinus, added by Ancus Martius, who also erected 
a fort on Janiculum, on the right bank of the Tiber. 

6. Esquilinus, added by Servius Tullius. 

7. Viminalis, added by Servius Tullius. 



KINGS OF ROME. 



1. Romulus, 

2. Numa Pompilius, 

3. Tullus Hostilius, 

4. Ancus Marcius, 

5. L. Tarquinius Priscus, 

6. Servius Tullius, 

7. L. Tarquinius Superbus, 



B. C. B. C. 

reigned 753—716, 37 yeais 

" 715—672, 43 " 

« 672—640, 32 " 

« 640—616, 24 " 

" 616-^78, 38 " 

" 578—534, 44 " 

" 534—510, 25 » 
(168) 





MISCELLANEA. 






1 


TWELVE CAESARS. 






1. Julius, 


B.C. 45 — 




b.c. 44. 


2. Augustus, 


, " 30— 




A.D.14. 


3. Tiberius, 


'a.d. 14— 






1 37. 


4. Caligula, 




' 37— 






' 41. 


5. Claudius, 




1 41— 






(< 54. 


6. Nero, 




< 54— 






1 68 


7. Galba, 




1 68— 






" 69 


8. Otho, 


Jan. 15, 


' 69— Apr. 


16, 




* 69. 


9. Vitellius, 


Jan. 2, 


* 69— Dec. 


22, 




' 69. 


10. Vespasian, 


Dec. 22, 


< 69— 






' 79. 


11. Titus, 




' 79— 






1 81. 


12. Domitian, 


" 81— 






1 96. 



169 



SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 

1. The Colossus of Rhodes. 

2. The Sepulchre of Mausolus, king of Caria. 

3. The Palace of Cyrus. 

4. The Pyramids of Egypt. 

5. The Statue of Jupiter at Olympia. 

6. The Temple of Diana at Epheeus. 

7. The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 



SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE. 

1. Thales, of Miletus. 

2. Pittacus, of Mitylene. 

3. Bias, of Priene. 

4. Solon, legislator of Athens. 

5. Cleobulus, of Rhodes. 

6. Periander of Corinth (some say Myson), of Laconia. 
7 Chilon, of Sparta. 

15 



170 MISCELLANEA. 

THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES. 

1. The Fight with the Nernean Lion. 

2. The Fight with the Hydra of Lerna, near Argos. 

3. The Capture of the Brazen-footed Stag of Arcadia. 

4. The Destruction of the Erymanthian Wild Boar. 

5. Cleansing the Stables of Augeas, king of Elis. 

6. The Destruction of the Stymphalian Birds. 

7. The Capture of the Cretan Bull. 

8. The Capture of the Mares of Diomedes, king of 
Thrace. 

9. The Seizure of the Girdle of Hippolyte, queen of 
the Amazons. 

.10. The Capture of the Oxen of Geryon. 

11. Obtaining the Golden Apples of the Hesperides. 

12. Bringing the Three-headed Dog Cerberus from the 
lower regions. 



THE NINE MUSES. 

1 Clio, muse of History. 

2. Euterpe, Lyric Poetry. 

3. Thalia, Comedy. 

4. Melpomene, Tragedy. 

5. Terpsichore, Choral Dance. 

6. Erato, Erotic, or Amorous Poetry. 

7. Polyhymnia, Rhetoric, Eloquence. 

8. Urania, Astronomy. 

9. Calliope, Epic Poetry. 



THE THREE GRACES. 



Aglaia (Splendour). 
Euphrosyne (Joy). 
Thalia (Pleasure). 



MISCELLANEA. 171 

THE THREE ROKM, OR GODDESSES OF THE 
ORDER OF NATURE, Ac. (Hesiod). 

Eunonria (Good Order). 
Dike (Justice). 
Irene (Peace). 



THE THREE FATES. 

Clotho, ~\ 

Lachesis, V for attributes, vide Parcae. 

Atropos, ) 



THE THREE FURIES, 

Alecto. 

Megsera. 

Tisiphone. 



THE THREE JUDGES OF HELL. 

Minos, formerly king of Crete. 

Rhadamanthus, son of Zeus and brother of Minos. 

JEacus, son of Zeus, famed for his Justice and Piety. 



THE FIVE RIVERS OF HELL. 

Styx. 

Acheron. 

Cocytus. 

Phlegethon. 

Lethe. 



172 MISCELLANEA. 



THE WINDS. 



N., 'Artopxr'faf, Septemtrio. 

N.E., Kotxtaj, Bopeaj (usually N. wind), Aquilo. 

E., 'AityjTuM'tTjs, Subsolanus. 

S.E., Eupoj, Eurus, Vulturnus. 

S., No-foj (prop. S.W.), Auster. 

S.W., Ai,'-^, Africus. 

W., Zt'ejwpoj (prop. N.W.), ZepTiyrus, Favonius. 

N.W., 'A/jyfctjJs, 2xip«v, Corns or Caurus. 

'EtyoCcu, northerly winds which blew in the summer. 

Iapyx, W. or N.W. wind, which blew from Apulia. 

Atabulus (Hor.) a scorching wind of Apulia. 



THE ROMAN CALENDAR. 

For the purposes of administering justice and holding the 
assemblies, all the days of the year were divided by the 
Romans into dies fasti and nefasti. The former (dies fasti) 
were the days on which the praetor was allowed to administer 
justice ; they were marked in the calendar by the letter F. ; 
the latter (dies nefasti) were days on which neither the courts 
of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held. Some days, 
however, might be partly fasti as well as nefasti, in which 
case they were marked in the calendar thus, Fp. (i. e. fastus 
primo), or Np. (i. e. nefastus primo). 

The Nundinoz (ninth days) were originally market-days, on 
which the country-people came to Eome to sell the produce 
of their labour. The nundinse were ferice or sacred days 
for the populus, while they were real business days for the 



MISCELLANEA. 



173 



plebeians (dies fasti), for many years, until the dies fasti 
and nundinae coincided. 



Mar 


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Jan 


, Aug:., Dec, 


Apr 


, June, Sep., 


Feb. 28 days, in 


Oct., 31 days. 


31 days. 


Nov., 30 days. 


Leap-year 29. 


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Kalendis 


6] 


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3 J Nonas 


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3 j Nonas 


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15* 



GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 



B.C. 

1856. Foundation of Argos : of Athens, 1556. 
1194. Trojan War commences. 
1124. JEolic migration : Ionic migration, 1044. 
1104. Return of the Heraclidge. 

1045. Death of Codrus, last king of Athens. Medon, first 
Arch on. 
884. Legislation of Lycurgus. 
776.*Corcebus gains the victory in the foot-race at the Olympian 

games. % 

743. First war between the Messenians and Lacedaemonians 
commences : ends with the defeat of the Messenians, 723. 
734. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 
683. Creon, first annual Archon elected at Athens. 
668. End of second Messenian War ; begun 685. 
664. Sea-fight between Corinthians and Corcyrceam, most ancient 

recorded. 
624. Dracon legislates at Athens. 
595. Crcesus, king of Lydia, born; Cirrhsean or Sacred War 

commenced. 
594.*Solon legislates at Athens as Archon. 
586. Cirrhceans vanquished and Pythian games celebrated. 

The Seven sages flourished about this time. 
585. Death of Periander. 

572. War between Pisa and Elis, ended by subjection of Pisaeans. 
560.*Pisistratus usurps the government of Athens. 
559. Cyrus begins to reign in Persia, and the Median empirt 

ends; it had existed 149 years. Death of Solon. 
546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. 
548. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt. 
538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 
535. Thespis first exhibits tragedy. 
531. Pythagoras, the philosopher, flourished. 
827. Death of Pisistratus. 

52L Death of Cambyses, and accession of Darius to the throne 
of Persia. 

(174) 



GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 175 

B.C. 

514. Hipparchus, tyrant of Athens, slain. 

610.*Hippias flees from Athens. Ten tribes instituted by Cle- 
isthenes. 

499. Ionians revolt, and, assisted by the Athenians, burn Sardis. 

494. Sixth and last year of the Ionian revolt. Ionians defeated in 
a naval engagement near Miletus. 

493. Persians take the islands Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. 
Miltiades comes from the Chersonesus to Athens. 

492. Mardonius, the Persian general, invades Europe and unites 
Macedonia to the Persian empire. 

491. Darius sends heralds to Greece. 

490.*Datis and Artaphernes, the Persian generals, invade Eu- 
rope, take Eretria in Euboea, and land in Attica, but are 
defeated at Marathon by the Athenians, under Miltiades. 

489. Miltiades endeavours to conquer Paros, but is repulsed. 
He is accused, and being unable to pay the fine is thrown 
into prison, where he dies. 

485. Xerxes, king of Persia, succeeds Darius. 

483. Aristides ostracised. 

481. Themistocles (the chief man at Athens) persuades the 
Athenians to build a fleet of 200 ships to resist the Persians. 

480. Xerxes invades Greece. Battles of Thermopylae and Arte- 
misium; Athens taken by Xerxes ; battle of Salamis; Xerxes' 
fleet destroyed. 

479. Mardonius, the Persian general, winters in Thessaly, in the 
spring occupies Athens, and is defeated by the Greeks under 
Pausanias at the battle of Platcea, in Sept. ; Persian fleet 
defeated off Mycale on the same day. 

478. Sestos taken by the Greeks. History of Herodotus termi- 
nates. Themistocles fortifies Athens. 

477. Commencement of the Athenian ascendency. 

471. Themistocles banished by Ostracism for ten years, and goes 
to Argos. Pausanias convicted of treason and put to death. 

468. Mycenae destroyed. Aristides dies. 

466. Cimon overcomes the Persians at the river Eurymedon, in 
Pamphylia. Themistocles flies to Persia. 

465. Death of Xerxes, who is succeeded by Artaxerxes. Thasos 
revolts ; subdued by Cimon, 463. 

464. Earthquake at Sparta. Helots and Messenians revolt. 

461. Cimon marches to assist the Lacedaemonians ; his offer of 
assistance declined; the Athenian troops sent back, and 
Cimon ostracised, but recalled, 456. Pericles chief man 
at Athens. 

460 First year of Egyptian war, which lasts six years, till 455. 

457. Battles between Athenians and Corinthians ; Athenians de- 
feated by Lacedsemonians at Tanagra, Longi Muri com- 



176 GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

menced by the Athenians completed, 456, in which year 
battle of (Enophyta. 

455. Messenians overcome by the Lacedaemonians. Tolmides, 
the Athenian general, settles the Messenians at Natipactus, 
and sails round the Peloponnesus, inflicting much injury. 

450. Five years' truce between Athenians and Peloponnesians. 

449. War with Persia renewed. Cimon dies. Athenians victo- 
rious at Salamis in Cyprus. 

448. Sacred War between the Delphians and Phocians for posses- 
sion of the oracle and temple. The Lacedaemonians assist 
the Delphians, the Athenians the Phocians. 

447. The Athenians defeated at Coronea by the Boeotians. 

445. Megara and Eubcea revolt from Athens. Lacedaemonians 
invade Attica. Pericles recovers Eubcea. Thirty years' 
truce between Athens and Sparta. 

440. Samos revolts from Athens, but is subdued by Pericles. 

439.*ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS GLORY. 

435. Corinthians and Corcyraeans carry on war ; Corinthians de- 
feated in a sea-fight. 

432. Corcyraeans, assisted by the Athenians, repulse the Corin- 
thians. Potidaea revolts from Athens. 

4&1.* First year of the Peloponnesian War. The Thebans make an 
attempt upon Plataea. — 430. Plague rages at Athens. — 429. 
Potidaea surrenders to the Athenians. Plataea besieged. 
Pericles dies. — 428. Fourth year of the war — Mitylene 
besieged. — 427. Mitylene taken by the Athenians, and Les- 
bos recovered, which had revolted the year before. Plataea 
surrendered to the Peloponnesians. — 425. Spartans in the 
island Sphacteria surrendered to Cleon. Demosthenes takes 
Pylos. — 424. Nicias ravages the coast of Laconia, and cap- 
tures Cythera. Brasidas marches into Thrace. Athenians 
defeated by the Thebans at Delium, at which Socrates and 
Xenophon fought. — 423. Ninth year of the war — Truce for 
one year. Thucydides banished in consequence of the 
loss of Amphipolis. — 422. Brasidas and Cleon fall in bat- 
tle. — 421. Truce for fifty years between the Athenians and 
Lacedaemonians. — 419. Alcibiades marches into the Pelo- 
ponnesus. — 418. Athenians send an army into the Pelopon- 
nesus, which is defeated at the battle of Mantinea. — 415. 
The Athenians send an expedition against Syracuse, com- 
manded by Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamaciius. Alcibi- 
ades is recalled, but escapes and takes refuge with the 
Lacedaemonians. — 414. Second campaign in Sicily; the 
Athenians invest Syracuse, to the assistance of which Gy- 
lippus, the Lacedaemonian, is sent. — 413. Attica invaded 
and Decelea fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. Third 



GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 177 

B.C 

campaign in Sicily — Demosthenes, the Athenian general, 
sent to the assistance of the Athenians. The Athenian army 
and fleet destroyed. Nicias and Demosthenes surrender and 
are put to death. — 412. Lesbians and Chians revolt from 
Athens. Alcibiades sent to Persia to form a treaty. A 
treaty is formed with Tissaphernes. The Athenians uso 
the 1000 talents deposited in the temple for emergencies. — - 
411. Twenty-first year of the war. Democracy abolished 
at Athens, and the council of the Four Hundred appointed. 
Alcibiades recalled from exile by the army and by the vote 
of the Athenian people. Mindarus, the Lacedaemonian 
admiral, defeated at Cynossema. — 407. Alcibiades returns 
to Athens. Lysander, the Lacedaemonian general, defeats 
Antiochus, the lieutenant of Alcibiades, by sea at Notium. 
Alcibiades banished. — 406. Callicratidas succeeds Ly- 
sander, and is defeated by the Athenian fleet off the Ar- 
ginussce islands. — 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians off 
JEgospotami, and takes or destroys nearly the whole fleet. 

404.* Twenty-eighth and last year of the Peloponnesian War. Athens 
taken by Lysander, and the government intrusted to the 
" Thirty Tyrants," who held their power for eight months. 
Death of Alcibiades. 

403. Thrasybulus and his party obtain the Piraeus, whence they 
carry on war against the " Ten," the successors of the 
" Thirty," and obtain possession of Athens in July ; though 
the contest was not ended till Boedromion (September). 
Thucydides returns to Athens, having been exiled twenty 
years. 

401. Expedition of Cyrus against his brother Artaxerxes II. : 
Cyrus is slain in the battle of Cunaxa. The Greek allies 
commence their return home, usually called the " Return 
of the Ten Thousand." First year of the war of Lacedai- 
mon and Elis, which lasted three years. 

399 The Lacedaemonians send Thimbron to assist the Greek 
cities in Asia. Thimbron superseded by Dercyllidas in 
the autumn. 

396. Agesilaus supersedes Dercyllidas. He winters at Ephesus. 

895. Second campaign of Agesilaus. He defeats Tissapher- 
nes. 

394. Agesilaus recalled from Asia, to march against the Greek 
states who had declared war against Lacedaemon. He de- 
feats the allied forces at Coronea. Conon, the Athenian 
admiral, gained a victory over Pisander, the Spartan, off 
Cnidus. Xenophon fights against his country at Coronea, 
and is banished from Athens. 

393. Sedition at Coi-inth. Pharnabazus and Conon ravage the 
coasts of the Peloponnesus. 



178 GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

392. The Lacedemonians, under Agesilaus, lay waste the Co* 
rinthian territory. 

390. The Persians side with the Lacedaemonians. Conon is im- 
prisoned. Thrasybulus, the Athenian commander, is de 
feated and slain at Aspendus. Long walls at Athens re- 
built. 

387. The peace of Antalcidas. 

386. Plataea restored. 

385. Mantinea destroyed by Agesipolis. 

382. First year of the Olynthian War : the Lacedaemonians com- 
manded by Teleutias. Phcebidas, the Spartan general, 
seizes Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes. 

379. Fourth and last year of the Olynthian War. The Cadmea 
recovered. 

378. The Athenians form an alliance with Thebes against Sparta. 
First Expedition of Agesilaus into Boeotia. 

376. The Lacedaemonian fleet overcome off Naxos. 

374. The Athenians, jealous of the Thebans, conclude a peace 
with the Spartans. Timotheus, the Athenian, takes Cor- 
cyra. War with Lacedaemon renewed. 

373. Lacedaemonians attempt to take Coreyra, but are defeated. 

371. Congress at Sparta, and a general peace concluded, from 
which the Thebans were excluded. Spartans invade Boeotia, 
but are defeated by the Thebans under Epaminondas, at the 
battle of Leuctra. 

369. First invasion of the Peloponnesus by Thebans. Second 
invasion, 368. Third invasion, 366. 

365. War between Arcadia and Elis. Battle of Olympia, 364. 

362. Fourth invasion of Peloponnesus by Thebans. Battle of 
Mantinea. Epaminondas slain. 

361. A general peace with all except the Spartans. Agesilaus 
goes to Egypt, but dies in the winter while preparing to re- 
turn home. 

360. War between the Olynthians and Athenians, for the posses- 
sion of Amphipolis. 

359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedonia (set. twenty- 
three). 

357. Chios, Rhodes, and Byzantium revolt from Athens. First 
year of the Social War. The Phocians seize Delphi. Com- 
mencement of the Sacred War. 

356. Birth of Alexander. Potidaea taken by Philip. 

355. Third and last year of the Social War. 

352. Philip enters Thessaly, expels the tyrants from Pherce, and 
makes himself master of Thessaly. Attempts to pass Ther- 
mopylae, but is prevented by the Athenians. 

348. Olynthian War continued. 

347. Olynthus taken, and destroyed by Philip. 



GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 179 

B.C. 

346. Philip brings the Sacred War to a close, after it had lasted 

ten years. 
343. Timoleon completes the conquest of Syracuse, and expels 

Dionysius, having sailed from Corinth for this purpose in 

344. 
342. Philip's expedition to Thrace. Demosthenes' Orations. 
339. War renewed between Philip and the Athenians. 
338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans at the battle of 

Chozron'ea, and becomes master of Greece. 
336.*Murder of Philip, and accession of Alexander (set. 

twenty). 
335. Thebes revolts, and is destroyed by Alexander. 
334. War commenced against Persia. Alexander defeats the 

Persian Satraps at the Gr aniens. 
333. Alexander subdues Lycia, collects his forces at Gor- 

dium in the spring, and defeats Darius at Issus in the 

autumn. 
332. Alexander takes Tyre and Gaza, and marches into Egypt, 

and orders Alexandria to be founded. — 331. Marches 

through Phoenicia and Syria, crosses the Euphrates, and 

defeats Darius at Arbela or Gaugamela. 
330. Darius slain by Bessus. 

329. Alexander crosses the Oxus and Jaxartes, defeats the Scy- 
thians, and winters at Bactra. 
327. Alexander conquers Sogdiana ; marries Roxana, a Bac- 

trian princess ; returns to Bactria, and invades India. 
326. Alexander returns to Persia, and sends Nearchus with a 

fleet to sail from the mouths of the Indus to the Persian 

Gulf. 
325. Alexander reaches Susa ; and Babylon, 324. 
323.*Alexander dies at Babylon in June, after a reign of twelve 

years and eight months. The Greek states wage war 

against Macedonia (Lamian War). 
322. Battle of Cranon, and end of the Lamian War. 
316. Antigonus becomes master of Asia. 
315. Seleucus, Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus wage wax 

against Antigonus. 
312. Fourth year of the war. — 311. A general peace. Roxana 

murdered. Seleucus recovers Babylon. /Era of the Se- 

leucidse begins. 
308. Ptolemy's expedition to Greece. 
306. Ptolemy defeated by Demetrius, son of Antigonus, in & 

sea-fight, off Salamis in Cyprus. 
303. War in Greece carried on by Demetrius against Cas- 
sander. 
301. Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia: Lysimachus and Seleucus defeat 

Antigonus and Demetrius. 



1.80 GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

295. Demetrius takes Athens, and, 294, makes an expedition 
into Peloponnesus. Becomes king of Macedonia. 

294. Civil War in Macedonia, between Antipater and Alex- 
ander. 

290. Demetrius takes Thebes, and, 289, carries on war against 
Pyrrhus. 

287. Demetrius driven from Macedonia, and his kingdom divided. 

281. Lysimachus defeated and slain at the battle of Corupedion. 

280.*Seleucus murdered. Rise of the Achaean league. Pyr- 
rhus crosses into Italy. 

279. The Gauls, under Brennus, invade Greece. 

273. Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, and expels Antigonus. 

272. Pyrrhus dies. Antigonus regains Macedonia. 

227. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, wages war against the Achaean 
League. 

221. Antigonus obtains possession of Sparta. 

220. Social War commences. — 217. Third and last year of the 
war. 

211. Treaty between Rome and the iEtolians. — 208. Philip 
marches into the Peloponnesus to assist the Acheeans. 

200. War between Philip and Rome. Philip defeated at the 
battle of Cynoscephalce, 197. 

192. Antiochus affords assistance to the iEtolians. 

1 67. One thousand of the principal Achceans sent to Rome. Romans 
victorious. 

147. Macedonia becomes a Roman province. 

146 .* Corinth destroyed by Mummius. Greece becomes a Roman 
province. 



ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 



B.C. 

753.*Foundation of Rome on the Palatine Mount, 21st of April, 
according to the era of Varro. Cato gives B. c. 752 ; Poly- 
bius, b.c. 750; Fabius Pictor, B.C. 747. 

753-716. Romulus, the first Roman King, reigned thirty-seven 
years. Senate consists of 100 "Senatores." Wars with 
Fldence and Veil. 

715-672. Numa Pompilius, the second King, reigned forty-three 
years. Institution of religious ceremonies, and regulation 
of the year. 

672-640. Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome, reigned thirty- 
two years. Destruction of Alba, and removal of inhabitants 
to Rome. 

640-616. Ancus Martius, fourth King of Rome, reigned twenty- 
four years. Origin of Plebeians, consisting of conquered 
Latins settled on the Aventine. Ostia founded. 

616-578. Lucius Takquinius Priscus, fifth King, reigned thirty- 
eight years. Great public works undertaken. The Senate 
increased to 300. 

578-534. Servius Tullius, sixth Roman King, reigned forty-four 
years. Rome surrounded by a stone wall. Institution of 
thirty Plebeian tribes. 

534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and last Roman King. 
Expulsion of the Tarquins, and establishment of a republic. 

509.*Consuls elected. Death of Brutus. First treaty with Car- 
thage. 

508. War with Porsena,\mg of Clusium. 

501. Institution of Dictatorship and Magister Equitum. 

498 Battle of Lake Regillus : Latins defeated. 

494. Secession of the Plebs to Mons Sacer. 

493. War with the Volscians, and capture of Corioli. — 491. Cori* 
olanus goes into exile. 

483. War with Veii. 

477. Slaughter of the 300 Fabii at the Cremera. 

471. Lex Publilia passed. 

465. War with the iEquians. 

16 (181) 



182 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

458. Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, who relieves the "Roman army 

shut in by the Volscians and iEquians. 
454. Three Commissioners sent to Greece, to prepare a code of 

laws. 
451.*Decemviri appointed. Laws of ten tables promulgated; 

increased by two, 450. 
449. Death of Virginia. Decemvirs deposed. 
445. Lex Canuleia passed, and connubium between Patricians and 

Plebeians permitted. 
444. Tribuni Militum with Consular power. 
443. Institution of Censorship. 

440. Famine at Rome. Prsefectus Annonoe appointed. 
438. Inhabitants of Fidence revolt. 
426. War with Veii. Fidence destroyed. 
421. Number of Quaestors increased from two to four. 
407. Truce with Veii (made 425) expires. 
406. Pay decreed to the soldiers by the Senate for the first 

time. 
405. Siege of Veii. It lasts ten years; ends 396, Veii being taken 

by Camillus. 
399. A pestilence at Rome. — 398. An embassy sent to consult the 

Oracle at Delphi. 
391. Camillus banished. Gauls enter Etruria. 
390. Rome taken by the Gauls. Romans defeated at the battle of 

Allia. Camillus recalled, and appointed Dictator. 
367. Licinian laws passed. One of the Consuls to be chosen from 

the Plebeians. Camillus conquers the Gauls. 
365. Death of Camillus. 
361. Invasion of tjie Gauls. T. Manlius kills a Gaul in single 

combat, and is surnamed Torquatus. 
356. First Plebeian Dictator elected. — 351. First Plebeian 

Censor. 
348. Treaty with Carthage renewed. 
343. First Samnite War. Valerius defeats the Samnites. 
340. Latin War. 
337. First Plebeian Prjetor. 
326. Second Samnite War. 
321. Roman army surrendered to the Samnites at the Caudint 

Forks, and sent under the yoke. 
300. Lex Ogulnia passed, increasing the number of Pontiffs and 

Augurs. 
298. Third Samnite War. Samnites defeated at Bovianum and at 

Volaterrce, by the Etruscans. 
295. Battle of Sentinum ; Samnites, Umbrians, Etruscans, and 

Gauls defeated. 
290. Conclusion of the Samnite War, which had lasted nfty-thre« 
years. 



Human chronology. 183 

B.C. 

281 Pybrhus arrives in Italy to assist the Tarentines against the 
Romans. 

280. Romans defeated by Pyrrhus near Heracleia ; and, 279, 
near Asculum. 

278. Pyrrhus in Sicily. Romans successful in Southern Italy. 

275. Pyrrhus totally defeated near Beneventum. 

272. War in Southern Italy concluded. 

264.* The First Punic War. Cons. Claudius crosses over into Si- 
cily and defeats the Carthaginians and Syracusans. 

262. Agrigentum taken after a siege of seven months. 

260. Fifth year of the First Punic War. Duilius, the Consul, 
gains a naval victory over the Carthaginians. 

256. The Romans victorious in Africa. 

255. Regulus, in Africa, takes Tunis and overcomes the Cartha- 
ginians, but is afterwards defeated and taken prisoner. 

250. Fifteenth year of the war. — Great victory of Metellus at 
Panormus. Regulus sent to Rome to solicit peace. 

247. Hamilcar appointed to the command of the Carthaginians. 
Hannibal born. 

241. Twenty -fourth and last year of the First Punic War. — Naval 
victory of C. Lutatius, off the iEgates. Peace made with 
the Carthaginians. Sicily becomes a Roman province. 

229. Death of Hamilcar in Spain. He is succeeded by Has- 

DRUBAL. 

225. War with the Gauls. Fourth and last year of the war, 222. 
219. Hannibal takes Sagunlum, and winters at Carthago Nova. 
2 18.* Second Punic War. — Hannibal reaches Italy from Spain in 

five months. He defeats the Romans at the battles of the 

Ticinus and the Trebia. Scipio carries on the war in 

Spain. 
217. Hannibal defeats Flaminius at the battle of the Trasymene 

Lake, and marches into Apulia. 
216. Romans defeated at the battle of Cannce. 
215. Marcellus overcomes Hannibal near Nola. The Scipios 

successful in Spain. 
212. Seventh year of the war. — Hannibal takes Tarentum, and 

Marcellus takes Syracuse. The two Scipios defeated in 

Spain. 
208. The two consuls are defeated by Hannibal near Venusia. 

Hasdrubal crosses the Pyrenees and winters in Gaul. 
207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy, is defeated on the Metaurus y 

and slain. 
206. Scipio becomes master of Spain. — 204. Hannibal worsted 

near Croton. Scipio crosses over into Africa. 
203. Carthaginians defeated, Syphax taken prisoner. Hannibax 

leaves Italy for Africa. 
202 Scipio defeats Hannibal at the decisive battle of Zama. 



184 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

201.* Eighteenth and last year of the Second Punic War. Peaca 
with Carthage. 

200. War renewed with Philip of Macedon. 

197. Philip defeated by Flaminius at the battle of Cynoscephalce, 
and peace concluded. 

196. Flaminius proclaims the independence of Greece. 

191. War with Antiochus, who is defeated at Thermopylae. 

190. L. Scipio, the consul, crosses into Asia and defeats Antio- 
chus at the battle of Magnesia. 

183. Death of Hannibal and of Scipio Africanus (exact date 
not settled). 

171. War with Perseus. 

168. Fourth and last year of the war. Perseus defeated by 
iEMiLius Paulus at the battle of Pydna. 

149. Third Funic War. — The Consuls land in Africa. 

146. * Fourth and laM year of the Third Punic War. — Carthage de- 
stroyed by Scipio. 

143. Numantine War commenced. — 140, 138 and 137. Numantineg 
successful. 

133. Numantia taken and destroyed by Scipio. 

129. Death of Scipio Africanus (aet. 56). Death of C. Grac- 
chus, 121. 

111. Jugurthine War. — 106. Sixth and last year, Jugurtha cap 
tured, Marius commander. 

102. Battle of Aquae Sextice. — Marius defeats the Teutones. Ser- 
vile War arises in Sicily. 

101. Marius and Catulus, Pro-con., defeat the Cimbri at Campi 
Raudii. 
90. Marsic or Social War. — 89. Romans successful, Asculum 

taken. 
8S.*End of the Marsic War. Sulla appointed to command the 
army against Mithridates, which occasions the civil war 
of Marius and Sulla. Sulla marches upon Rome, pro- 
scribes Marius and his party. 
87. Sulla crosses into Greece to conduct the war. Marius 
and Cinna, the Consul, enter Rome and murder their oppo- 
nents. 
86. Marius dies (aet. seventy). War continued against Mith- 
ridates. Archelaus defeated in Bceotia. 
84. Mithridates and Sulla conclude a peace. 
83. Sulla returns to Italy and continues the civil war against 

the pirty of Marius. The Capitol burnt. 
82. Sulla, victorious, is appointed Dictator. Prseneste cap- 
tured. 
78. Death of Sulla (set. sixty). 

75. P. Servilius Vatia, the Pro-consul (sent against the Pirate* 
on the S. coast of Asia Minor, 78), conquers the Isaurians. 



ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 185 

B.C. 

^4 War with Mithridates renewed. Lucullus appointed general. 

73. Mithridates defeated by Lucullus, near Cyzicus. Com- 
mencement of the war in Italy against the Gladiators under 
Spartacus. 

71. Mithridatic War continued. Mithridates flees into Armenia, 
to Tigranes. Spartacus, the leader of the Gladiators, de- 
feated. 

69. Lucullus invades Armenia, and defeats Tigranes. 

6G. Mithridatic War intrusted to Cn. Pompeius. 

65. Catiline's first conspiracy. 

63. Death of Mithridates. Catiline's second conspiracy disco- 
vered and crushed by Cicero the Consul. 

62. Catiline defeated and slain. 

61. Pompeius, having returned to Italy, triumphs. 

60. C. J. Cesar victorious in Spain. Cesar, Pompeius, and 

Crassus establish the first Triumvirate. 
68. Cesar undertakes his first campaign in Gaul. Defeats the 

Belgae, 57 ; crosses the Rhine, and invades Britain, 55 ; second 

expedition into Britain, 54. 
54. Crassus marches against the Parthians. — 53. Defeat and 

death of Crassus. 

61. C^sar subjugates Gaul, his ninth campaign. 

49. Commencement of the Civil War between Pompeius and 

Cesar. 
48. Cesar lands in Greece, and defeats Pompeius at the battle of 

Pharsalus. Pompeius murdered before Alexandria (set. 58). 

Alexandrine War. 
47. C^sar, Dictator, concludes the Alexandrine War; marches 

into Pontus, and conquers Pharnaces. 
46. Cesar defeats the partisans of Pompeius at the battle of 

Thapsus. He reforms the Calendar. 
45. Battle of Munda in Spain. C .esar defeats the sons of Pom- 
peius, and is made Consul for ten years, and Dictator for 

life. 
44. Cesar assassinated, on the 15th of March (aet. fifty-six). 

Civil War of Mutina against Antony. 
43. Second Triumvirate formed by Octavianus, Antonius, and 

Lepidus. 
42. War in Greece. Battle of Philippi, and death of Cassius. 

Second battle of Philippi, and death of Brutus. 
86. Defeat of Sex. Pompeius. Lepidus ceases to be a Triumvir. 
34. Dalmatians defeated. 
33. A rupture takes place between Octavianus and Antoniu*, 

and both prepare for war. 
31. Antonius defeated at the battle of Actium, 2d of Sept. 
80.*Death of Antonius (aet. fifty-one) and Cleopatra. Egypt bt~ 

comes a Roman province. Octavianus sole ruleb or THB 
16* 



186 ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

Roman Empire. He returns to Rome from the East, and 
celebrates three triumphs, Dalmatian, Actian, Alexandrine. 

27. Octavianus takes the title of Augustus, and accepts the 
government for ten years. 

25. The Temple of Janus shut a second time. 

23. Death of Marcellus. 

20. Ambassadors sent to Rome from India. 

12 Death of Agrippa. 

10. Augustus returns to Rome from Gaul, with Drusus and Ti- 
berius. 
9. Drusus sent against the Germans. Dies. 

A.D. 

4. Tiberius adopted by Augustus, and sent to carry on war 
against the Germans. 

12. Tiberius returns to Rome from Germany, and triumphs. 

14. Census taken, the citizens are 4,197,000. Augustus dies at 
Nola in Campania (set. seventy-six), and is succeeded by Ti- 
berius (set. fifty-six). 

16. Germanicus continues the war in Germany, and triumphs, 
17. Retm-ns to Rome. 

19. Germanicus visits Egypt, and returns to Syria. Dies (set. 
thirty-four). The Jews are banished from Italy. 

23. Death of Drusus, poisoned by Sejanus. 

31. Fall and execution of Sejanus. 

33. Agrippina and her son Drusus are put to death. 

37. Death of Tiberius (set. seventy-eight), having reigned twenty- 
three years. Caligula succeeds (set. twenty-five). 

39. Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, deposed, and succeeded 
by Agrippa. 

40. Caligula in Gaul. His expedition to the ocean. He returns 
to Rome. 

41. Caligula slain (set. twenty-nine). Claudius succeeds (set. 
fifty). Gei-mans defeated by Galba. 

43. Expedition of Claudius into Britain. Returns to Rome, and 

triumphs, 44. 
49. Claudius (his wife Messalina having been put to death in 48) 

marries Agrippina. 
54. Claudius poisoned (set. sixty-three) ; reigned fourteen years. 

Nero succeeds (set. seventeen). 
59. Agrippina, the mother of Nero, is murdered by his order. 

61. Insurrection in Britain under Boadicea. 

62. Nero divorces Octavia, and marries Popp^ea Sabina, th« 
wife of Otho. 

64. Great fire at Rome. First persecution of the Christians. 

65. Piso's conspiracy discovered and suppressed. 

66. Nero goes to Greece. The Jewish war begins. 

67. Nero in Greece. Vespasian conducts the Jewish War. 



ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 187 

A.D. 

68. Nero kills himself (get. thirty). Galba succeeds. 

69. Galba slain, Jan. 15 (get. seventy-three). Otho succeeds, 
Jan. 15, and died April 16 (get. thirty-six). Vitellius pro- 
claimed at Cologne, Jan. 2 ; reigned till his death, Dec. 22 
(get. fifty-four). Vespasian (get. sixty) proclaimed at Alex- 
andria, July 1. On the death of Galba, the Civil War be- 
tween Otho and Vitellius commenced. The troops of Otho 
defeated at the battle of Bedriacum ; the generals of Vespa- 
sian meanwhile invade Italy, take Cremona, and march upon 
Rome. The Capitol burnt. Vitellius slain, 22d of Dec. 

70.*Vespasian proceeds to Italy, leaving Titus his son to carry 
on the Jewish war. Jerusalem taken, after a siege of five 
months. 

71. Triumph of Vespasian and Titus. Temple of Janus closed. 

78. Agbicola in Britain. 

79. Death of Vespasian, June 23 (get. sixty-nine). Titus suc- 
ceeds (get. thirty-eight). Second campaign of Agricola in 
Britain. Eruption of Vesuvius. 

80. Great fire at Rome. Colosseum completed. Third cam- 
paign of Agbicola. 

81. Death of Titus, Sept. 13 (get. forty). Domitian succeeds 
(get. thirty). Fourth campaign of Agbicola in Britain. 
Fifth campaign, 82 ; sixth, 83 ; seventh, 84. Agricola re- 
called to Rome, 85. 

96. Domitian slain, Sept. 18 (get. forty-four). Nebva Emperor 

(get. sixty-three) ; died Jan. 25, 98 (get. sixty-five). 
98. Tbajan (get. forty-one); died Aug. 8, 117 (get. sixty), having 
reigned nineteen years. 

117. Hadrian (get. forty-two ; died July 10, 138 (get. sixty-two), 
having reigned twenty-one years. 

138. Antonius Pius (get. fifty-one); died Mar. 7, 161 (set. 
seventy-four), having reigned twenty-three years. 

161. M. Aurelius (get. thirty-nine) ; died Mar. 17, 180 (get. fifty- 
eight), having reigned nineteen years. 

180. Commodus (get. nineteen); slain Dec. 31, 193 (get. thirty- 
one), having reigned thirteen years. 

193. Pertinax (get. sixty-six); slain Mar. 28, 193, having reigned 
three months. Julianus (get. fifty-six) ; reigned from Mar. 
28 to June 1. Septimus Severus (get. forty-six) ; died 
Feb. 4, 211, at Eboracum, York, (get! sixty- four), having 
reigned eighteen years. 



GREEK INDEX. 



A. 
Sytcvpa, 113. 
ayopai, 161. 
ay&ves, 108. 
abvrov, 103. 
afiutvia, 105. 
aOivaia, 107. 
'AOjvti, 69. 
*A««, 72. 
al%nfi, 112. 

d/C<5vTlOV, 112. 

cucpdrHTiia, 114. 
a*pii7roAtS) 160. 
aA//a, 108. 
AXr/jptj, 108. 
ajKpiKTvovia, 102. 
avdppvais, 106. 
avappvw, 104. 
av0£or>7f>ta, 106. 
'AvdeaTrjpidJv, 165. 
dWXo?, 113. 
i#W7, 112. 
'ATtapKTtas, 172. 
anapxfj, 104. 
O7rarouj5ia, 106. 
'Axt]\iu)Tt]s, 172. 
'Apycffrfc, 172. 
dp^aviov, 115. 
apuoirayziTai, 101. 
"Ap*s, 68. 
dp^rfjpEJ, 103. 
apiarov, 114. 
"Apr^us, 70. 
dp^Eiov, 100. 



ap%wv, 98. 
'AoxX>j7rtos, 70. 

d(r7Itf, 111. 

drip.ia, 103. 
at^Xata, 116. 
auXdj, 108. 
, A(ppo5iTT], 70. 



(3a<ri\tvs, 98, 99. 
/?&»/, 112. 
Borj^pofiiuiVf 165. 
Bopias, 172. 
BovXcvrfipiov, 161. 
/JouXtf, 100. 
(3p6%os, 103. 
0w//<5?, 103. 

r. 

rap.r)\iu>v, 165. 
yipovTcs, 101. 
ytpovcla, 101. 
Tata, 71. 

r»i 7i. 

ypafi/jLarevs, 99. 

A. 
£acpvti<j>6pia, 106. 
foiXivdv, 114. 

(Jmri'Ol', 114. 

ScX<piv, 114. 
Seffjxos, 103. 
irjpapx, 01 * 99. 
Ari/x^rrip, 69. 



SrjfJtot, 99. 
Stain/rat, 101. 
(Ji'auXoj, 108. 
^uVn-Aovj, 114. 
^toi'tfffta, 106. 
Aidvudoj, 71. 
itvKOs, 108. 
SoKi/xaaia, 101. 

S6\i X os, 108. 

<5<5//os, 103. 

6d^7T£ta, 106. 

<^dp7rov, 114. 

<5dpu, 112. 

SovXeia, 103. 

dotiXoi, 98. 

6p6p.os, 108. 

E. 

eyx°S> 112. 
fyKUfcXov, 115. 
idwXia, 113. 
£?Xa)T£<;, 98. 
t 'E.KaTon(3aiu>v, 165k 
iKar6fi(ir}, 104. 
fKaTOVTapxi'a, 112. 
CKKXriala, 100. 
'EXa0^j8oXtwv, 165. 
iXevaivia, 106. 
erfoXov, 113. 
ti^Ka, 99. 
txifidraiy 114. 
CTriGTdTTis, 100. 
firtaroXcvi, 114. 
inwvvfAOs, 98. 

(189) 



190 



GREEK INDEX. 



spiral, 114. 
iptrpoi, 113, 
Epprjs, 69. 
'Epwff, 71. 
ioOrjs, 115. 
'Eorla, 69. 
evdvvrj, 101. 
Eitycw'fos, 71. 
'Er^ffiat, 172. 

Etjpo?, 172. 
((pearpls, 115. 
i<phai, 102. 
iipoptlov, 100. 
tyopoi, 99, 
Ews, 71. 

Z. 

Zerfj, 68. 
Zityvpos, 172. 
£uya, 113. 
£uytrat, 113. 

H. 
jJAcafa, 101. 
rfXiaorai, 101. 
fjvio^oif 111. 
"Hpa, 69. 
"Hp>7, 69. 
fipya, 116. 
"H(pai<JTog f 68. 

e. 

daXa/uTaif 113. 
©aXa/iof, 113. 
0dvaroj, 103. 
0apy»7Aiwv, 165. 
Biarpov, 116. 
0£O7rpd7roi, 104. 
Be^poBhai, 98, 99. 
dea/uxpopictf 107. 
drj(ravp6s, 103. 
Bpavtrai, 113. 
Bpavoi, 113. 



fliyiAi?, 116. 

0UO<7KdO(, 103. 

0upfd S , 112. 
0aipa£ 111. 

I. 

?£/>£??, 103. 

'IcptTov, 104. 
'ifxaTiov, 115. 
?7r7rap^oi, 112. 
I7r7r£?s, 111, 112. 
ioriov, 113. 
icrrd?, 113. 

K. 
KatKiaj, 172. 
Ka\ddiov, 107. 
Karaarpuypara, 113. 
Kucpuma, 160. 
Kepalai, 113. 
KcpapeiKos, 160. 
Kf'para, 112, 113. 
/Cfpva, 104. 
Ktovts, 116. 
*Amn, 114, 115. 
KvrjplSes, 111. 
KdQopvoi, 115. 
*coTAov, 117. 

KOVTOl, 113. 
KOpi/f, 111. 
KOvptCjTlS, 106. 

Kpdvos, HI. 
KpTjir'tdes, 115. 
Kpdvoj, 75. 
Kv(3cpvr}Ti)S, 114. 
Kvvirj, 111. 

KV(p(i)V, 103. 

K(j)Trai, 113. 

A. 

Xrj^lap^oi, 99. 
\i0o(3o\ia, 103. 

AN/, 172. 



Ao/ftO!/, 116. 

Aot/?a/, 104. 

Ad<£o«r, 111. 
Ad^oi, 112. 
Ad^of, 112. 



MaipaKrrjpi&Vf 185. 
fidvTUs, 104. 

ptXlTOllTTa, 115. 

fxeadKoiXa, 113. 
Msrayarvidiv, 166. 
piroiKOi, 98. 
p.tTU)irov, 113. 
/^J7/3a, 104. 
fiopai, 112. 
Movw^twi/, 165. 
pwarfipia, 106. 

N. 
vaiSia, 116, 
radj, 103. 
vavap^oj, 114. 
vaCrat, 114. 
vopodinai, 99. 
Ndros, 172. 
vovjxrjvla, 166. 



£tyo f , 103, 112. 

O. 

d3oAd f , 115. 

'O(5u<ro-£i5j, 94. 
otof, 113. 
ojVwi'OTrdAot, 104» 
Jiffi-of, 112. 

OlWVHTTai, 104. 

6A*a<5£ S , 113. 
6A™', 114. 
dp<f>a\oSy 111. 
6v£tpon6\oi, 104. 
dniad68op.os, 103. 





GREEK INDEX. 


inXlrai, 111. 


■npvraviia, 100. 


rpdvt^ai, 116. 


bnXhtjs, 108. 


Trpravuoi/, 161. 


rpdcpt)!;, 113. 


dp^ijarpa, 116. 


Trpvravets, 100. 


TplfilDV, 115. 


iarpaKiajiog, 102. 


npdpa, 113. 


Tpif/papxos, 114» 


oi>Ao;£i>raj, 104. 


Iluavci/'iwj/, 165. 


rpira, 116. 


ovpd, 112, 


TTvyjxfi, 108. 


Tpdnis, 113. 




TTvXoia, 101. 


rpoirot, 113. 


n. 


jrup, 103. 


rpo^as, 103. 


TrayxpaTiov, 109. 




Tfy»7, 71. 


rriAv, 109. 


2. 




IIuAAaS, 69. 


o-avt?, 103. 


Y. 


»rava0>7»«ua, 107. 


crjKos, 103. 


vtripat, 113. 


Kt^oi, 111. 


cfifiara, 104. 


ino(3oXevs, 117. 


ttAovoi, 104. 


(XKrjVfj, 116. 


vxoSrJuaTa, 115. 


irsAaWtj, 105. 


Y.Ki()po<popuov, 165, 




irA £ «5, 112. 


E>ct'pwj/, 172. 


*. 


ireXraarai, 111, 112. 


ffdAoj, 108. 


(paivoXns, 115. 


JT&TJfc 111, 112. 


27rapTiurat, 98. 


<f>dXay%, 112. 


ne/jLirds, 112. 


tnra'pr], 113. 


<pdpp.aKcv, 103. 


TTfvradXov, 108. 


o-7ro)/5ai, 104. 


(pdpos, 115. ^ 


irevTtjKovTopoi, 113. 


ora<5to»', 108. 


(poprrjyoi, 113. 


irtpiKt^aXaia, 111. 


OTavpos, 103. 


(pvyrj, 103. 


TTCplOlKOt, 98. 


crjjXai, 116. 


0vAat, 102. 


ircpiTzXovs, 114. 


(tt/jXtj, 103. 


ipvXap^oi, 99, 11 


JT^aAjOV, 113. 


OTiynaTa, 103. 




vtdoiyia, 106. 


croai, 161. 


X. 


jr?Aot, 115. 


ardAap^os, 114. 


•XiipoTovia, 100. 


7rAarai, 113. 


OToXrj, 115. 


XircSv, 115. 


reXevpai, 113. 


arpamyoi, 112. 


%lTtl>VlOV, 115. 


:rAota, 113. 


a-par^yd?, 114. 


;^Aa?J/a, 115. 


Trvuf, 161. 


trrparto, 112. 


j^Xafivg, 115. 


rife, 113. 


crpoyyvAai, 113. 


X°af, 104, lid. 


TOlKlXtl, 161. 


<T<ptvd6vr), 112. 


^0£f, 106. 


iroXfpap^og, 98, 112.. 


a^oivla, 113. 


jp&if, 103. 


jroAjraj, 98. 




Xopayos, 117. 


IIo<T£l<5fWV, 165. 


T. 


^tirpot, 106. 


El0(T££6fciv, 68. 


TaZlap%oi, 112. 




7rpd(5o^oj, 103. 


ra'fo 112. 


*. 


irpdcipoi, 100. 


ripttvoi, 103. 


ipfyitr/jia, 100. 


■KpoOeais, 115. 


ripara, 104. 


•4/1/001, 100. 


•xpdvaos, 103. 


recoapdicovTa, 102. 


t^tAoi', 111. 


irpo7ruAaia, 160. 


To&vpara, 112. 




7rpoer»c^vtov, 116. 


r<5£ov, 112. 


a. 


Jrp»/ivi7, 113. 


T07T£?a, 113. 


ftfcZov, 161. 



191 



INDEX 



A. 

Abacas, 142. 
Absyrtus, 86. 
Academia, 161. 
Academic Sect, 159. 
Acarnania, 38. 
Accensi, 122. 
Acestes, 95. 
Acbaia, 40. 
Acberon, 75. 
Achilles, 8-1. 
Actuarial, 138. 
Acropolis, 160. 
Admetus, 75. 
Adonis, 76. 
Adrastus, 87. 
iEacus, 76. 
^Ediurn, 140. 
iEdiles, 122. 

Curules, 122. 

Cereales, 122. 

jEetes, 85. 
iEgeon, 77. 
^Jgyptus, 64, 65. 
Aello, 79. 
JEneas, 95. 
.ffiolia, 49. 
JSolus, 70. 
^lolian league, 52. 
JErarium, 120. 
^Isebines, 148. 
^schylus, 144. 
/Esculapius, 70. 
jEson. 85. 



iEsop, 149. 
^Etolia, 38. 
Africa, 63. 

Propria, 66. 

Africus, 172. 
Agamemnon, 89, 92. 
Agenor, 86. 
Agger, 135. 
Aglaia, 72. 
Agora, 144. 
Ajax, 92. 
Albania, 57. 
Alcaeus, 129. 
Alcestis, 76. 
Alcyone, 82. 
Alcman, 130. 
Alecto, 71. 
Alexander, 89, 95. 
Alveolus, 126. 
Alveus, 126. 
Amazones, 76. 
Ammon, 70. 
Amor, 71. 
Amphiaraus, 87. 
Amphitrite, 70. 
Amphorae, 140. 
Anacreon, 129. 
Anaxandrides, 129. 
Anchises, 95. 
Ancile, 129. 
Andabataa, 132. 
Andromache, 95. 
Andronicus (Livius), 
154. 



Angustus Clavus, 119. 
Annuli, 139. 
Antenor, 95. 
Antigone, 87. 
Antilochus, 92. 
Antiphanes, 129. 
Apis, 70. 

Apodyterium, 141. 
Apollo, 69. 
Apparitores, 122. 
Apulia, 29. 
Aqueducts, 164 
Aquilo, 172. 
Aquitani, 17. 
Aquitania, 18. 
Arabia, 55. 
Araros, 145. 
Arcadia, 42. 
Arches, Triumphal, 

164. 
Archimedes, 149. 
Arena, 131. 
Argo, 85. 
Argolis, 41. 
Argonautae, 85. 
Argus, 80, 85. 
Aria, 60. 
Ariadne, 76. 
Arianus, 60. 
Aries, 136. 
Aristophanes, 145. 
Aristotle, 151. 
Armenia, 57. 

Minor, 51. 

(192) 



INDEX, 



198 



Arx, 163. 
Asia, 46. 

Minor, 47. 

(Seven Churches 

of), 52. 
Assaracus, 88. 
Assyria, 59. 
Astraea, 70. 
Atabulus, 172. 
Athainas, 85. 
Athena, 69. 
Atlas, 76. 
Atrium, 140. 
Atropos, 75. 
Attica, 40. 
Atticus, 157. 
Augures, 127. 
Augurium, 127. 
Aulaea, 116. 
Aurora, 71. 
Auspices, 127. 
Auspiciuni, 127. 
Ausonia, 23. 
Auster, 172. 
Automedon, 92. 
Auxilia, 135. 

B. 

Babylonia, 58. 
Bacchus, 71. 
Bacchylides, 146. 
Bactria, 60. 
Bactriana, 60. 
Baetica, 16. 
Ballista, 136. 
Balnese, 141. 
Balneator, 141. 
Basilicae, 163. 
Batanaea, 55. 
Belgae, 17. 
Bellerophon, 76. 
Bellona, 71. 

17 



Bion, 146. 
Bithynia, 48. 
Boeotia, 39. 
Bona Dea, 130. 
Boreas, 172. 
Briareus, 77. 
Briseis, 90. 
Britannia, 44. 
Bruttiuin, 30. 
Buccina, 135. 

C. 

Cadniea, 86. 
Cadmus, 86. 
Caesar, 155. 
Caesars,theTwelve,169 
Calcei, 139. 
Calceus lunatus, 120. 
Calchas, 89, 92. 
Caldarium, 141. 
Calends, 167. 
Caligse, 139. 
Calliope, 73. 
Calypso, 77. 
Campania, 29. 
Campi, 162. 
Campus Martius, 162. 
Cappadocia, 51. 
Capitolium, 163. 
Capaneus, 87. 
Caria, 50. 
Carina, 113. 
Carmania, 61. 
Carni, 26. 
Cassandra, 89, 95. 
Castor, 77. 
Castra, 136. 
Catapulta, 136. 
Cato, 158. 
Catullus, 153. 
Catervarii, 132. 
Caurus, 172. 



Cavea, 117, 132. 
Celaeno, 79, 82. 
Celsus, 158. 
Celtae, 17. 
Censores, 123. 
Centauri, 77. 
Centuriae, 134. 
Centuriones, 135, 
Ceramlcus, 160. 
Cerberus, 77. 
Ceres, 69. 
Cestus, 108. 
Chaldaea, 58. 
Cbaron, 77. 
Chimasra, 76. 
Chiron, 77. 
Chlamys, 135. 
Chryseis, 90. 
Chryses, 90. 
Cicero, 156, 157. 
Cilicia, 50. 
Cingulum, 138. 
Circe, 77. 
Circi, 163. 
Circus, 163. 
Cistae, 121. 
Clepsydrae, 167. 
Clio, 73. 
Clipeus, 134. 
Clotho, 75. 
Cocytus, 77. 
Cognomen, 143. 
Ccelus, 75. 
Coena, 139. 
Cohortes, 134. 
Colchis, 56. 
Columella, 158. 
Columns, 164. 
Colyttus, 160. 
Comitia, 121. 

Curiata, 121. 

Centuriata, 121. 



194 



INDEX 



Comitia Tributa, 122. 
Comissatio, 140. 
Compluviuni, 140. 
Conscription, 133. 
Consules, 123. 
Co-b'ptatio, 128. 
Cornu, 135. 
Coroebus, 96. 
Corinthia, 42. 
Corona Civica, 136. 
Castrensis, 

137. 

Muralis, 137. 

■ Obsidionalis, 

137. 

Graminea, 137. 

Oleagina, 137. 

Corvi, 138. 
Cothurni, 117, 139. 
Crater, 140. 
Crates, 145. 
Cratinus, 145. 
Creon, 88. 
Cucullus, 139. 
Cunei, 132. 
Cuneus, 136. 
Cupido, 71. 
Curatores, 123. 
Curiae (Senate-houses), 

164. 
Curiae, 118. 
Curio, 118. 
Curiones, 128. 
Cursus, 131. 
Curtius, 156. 
Cybele, 83. 
Cyclades, 43. 
Cyclopes, 78. 
Cynic Sect, 159. 
Cynosarges, 161. 
Cyprus, 52. 
Cyrenaic Sect, 159. 



D. 

Dacia, 32. 
Daedalus, 78. 
Damnum, 126. 
Danaides, 84. 
Daphne, 78. 
Dardanus, 88. 
Decemviri, 128. 
Decretum, 120. 
Decuriae, 134. 
Deiphobus, 88, 96. 
Delta, 64. 
Demosthenes, 148. 
Deucalion, 78. 
Diana, 70. 
Dictator, 124. 
Dies Fasti, 172. 

Festi, 130. 

Nefasti, 172. 

Profesti, 130. 

Dike, 72. 

Diodorus (Siculus), 

147. 
Diomedes, 92. 
Dionysius, 147. 
Dionysus, 71. 
Theatre of, 

161. 
Diphilus, 145. 
Dirae, 71. 
Dis, 72. 
Discessio, 120. 
Dithyrambs, 144. 
Dormitoria, 141. 
Dorian (States), 51. 
Doris, 38, 50. 
Dryades, 73. 

E. 
Eleatic School, 159. 
Electra, 82, 93. 



Eliac School, 159. 
Elis, 40. 
Elysium, 78. 
Emeriti, 133. 
Endymlon, 78. 
Ennius, 152. 
Ensis, 135. 
Epaphus, 80. 
Epeus, 91. 
Epicharmus, 145. 
Epicurean Sect, l r >9. 
Epicurus, 151. 
Epirus, 38. 
Equites, 118, 135. 
Erato, 73. 
Erebus, 78. 
Erechtheum, 160. 
Eretriac School, 159. 
Ericthonius, 88. 
Eristic School, 159 
Essedarii, 132, 
Eteocles, 87. 
Etruria, 26. 
Eubulus, 145. 
Euclid, 149. 
Eumenldes, 71. 
Eunomia, 72. 
Euphrosyne, 72 
Eupolis, 145. 
Euripides, 145. 
Europe, 13. 
Europa, 78, 86. 
Eurus, 172. 
Euryale, 79. 
Eurydlce, 81. 
Eurysaces, 92. 
Eurystheus, 79. 
Eurytion, 82. 
Euterpe, 73. 
Eutropius, 156. 
Evocati, 134. 
Extispices, 12&. 



INDEX. 



195 



p. 

Familia, 143. 
Fates, 171. 
Fauni, 71. 
Favonius, 172. 
Fenestras, 141. 
Ferentarii, 134. 
Feriaj, 130. 
Feretrum, 142. 
Fetiales, 128. 
Flaecus (Valerius), 152. 
Flamines, 128. 
Flora, 71. 
Florus, 156. 
Follis, 141. 
Fora, 162. 
Fores, 140. 
Fortuna, 71. 
Forum, 162. 
Fossa, 135. 
Fratres Arvales, 129. 
Frigidarium, 141. 
Fritillus, 142. 
Funditores, 134. 
Furiae, 71, 171. 

G. 
Gaea, 71. 
Galatia, 51. 
Galea, 134. 
Galen, 148. 
Galerus, 139. 
Galilee, 54. 
Galli, 129. 
Gallia, 17. 
— — Belgiea, 19. 

Cisalpina, 25. 

Togata, 25. 

Cispadana, 25. 

Transpadana, 26. 

Ganymede, 72. 
Ge, 71. 



Gedrosia, 61. 
Gellius (Aulus), 158. 
Genius, 71. 
Gentes, 143. 
Germania, 20. 
Gigantes, 79. 
Gladiatorii, 131. 
Gladius, 135. 
Glaucus, 96. 
Globus, 136. 
Gorgones, 79. 
Graecia, 34. 
Gratiae, 72, 170. 



Hercules (labours of), 

170. 
Herodotus, 146. 
Hesiod, 144. 
Hesione, 88. 
Hesperia, 23. 
Hesperldes, 79. 
Hipparchus, 165. 
Hippocrates, 148. 
Hippodamia, 82. 
Hippolyte, 80. 
Hippomedon, 87. 
Hispania, 15. 



Gymnicum(Certamen),Histria, 26. 



131. 



H. 



Hades, 72. 
Haemon, 88. 
Hamadryades, 73. 
Harpagones, 138. 
Harpyiae, 79. 
Haruspices, 128. 
Hastae, 135. 
Hastati, 134, 136. 
Heaven, 75. 
Hebe, 72. 
Hecate, 72. 
Hecaton Cheires, 84. 
Hector, 96. 
Hecuba, 88, 96. 
Helena, 89, 93. 
Helenus, 91, 96. 
Helios, 72. 
Hell (rivers of), 171. 

(judges of), 171. 

Hellas, 34. 
Helle, 85. 
Heptanomis, 64. 
Heraclidae, 79. 
Heraclitean Sect, 159. 
Hercules, 79. 



Homer, 144. 
Horace, 153. 
Horae, 72, 171. 
Hostia, 130. 
Hyades, 80. 
Hygea, 72. 
Hygiea, 72. 
Hymen, 72. 
Hymenaeus, 72. 
Hyperion, 80. 
Hypermnestra, 84. 
Hypocaustra, 141. 
Hyrcania, 60. 



Iapetus, 80. 
Iapyx, 172. 
Iberia, 56. 
Ides, 167. 
Idomeneus, 93. 
Ignobiles, 119. 
Ignominia, 126. 
Illyricum, 22. 
Hlyris Graeca, 33. 
Ilus, 88. 
Imagines, 142. 
Imperator, 137. 
Impluvium, 141. 



196 



INDEX. 



India, 62. 
Infamia, 126. 
Infulse, 130. 
Intercessio, 125. 
Io, 80. 
Ionia, 49. 

Ionian (States), 51. 
Iphigenia, 90. 
Irene, 72. 
Iris, 72. 
Isaeus, 148. 
Isauria, 50. 
Isis, 72. 
Ismene, 87. 
Isocrates, 147. 
Italia, 23. 
lulus, 95. 
Ixlon, 80, 83. 

J. 

Janua, 140. 
Janus, 72. 
Jason, 80, 85. 
Jentaculum, 139. 
Jocasta, 87. 
Judaea, 53, 54. 
Judicia, 126. 
Juno, 69. 
Jupiter, 68. 
Jus Imaginum; 119. 
Justin, 156. 
Juvenal, 154. 
Juventas, 72. 



Labdacus, 86. 
Lacerna, 139. 
Lachesis, 75. 
Laconia, 41. 
Laeunaria, 141. 
Leena, 139. 
Laius, 86. 



Lanista, 131. 
Laocob'n, 91. 
Laodamas, 88. 
Laodamia, 97. 
Laodice, 89, 93. 
Laomedon, 88. 
Lapithae, 80. 
Laquearia, 141. 
Lares, 73. 
Latium, 28. 
Latona, 80. 
Latrunculi, 142. 
Latus clavus, 120. 
Laudatio, 142. 
Latinus, 95. 
Lavinia, 95. 
Lecti, 139. 
Lectica, 142. 
Leda, 80. 
Legati, 135. 
Legio, 134, 136. 
Lethe, 80. 
Libatio, 104. 
Libitinarii, 142. 
Libya, 66. 
Lictores, 122. 
Liguria, 25. 
Limen, 140. 
Limnae, 160. 
Lituus, 128, 135. 
Livy, 155. 
Locris, 38. 
Longinus, 150. 
Lorica, 134. 
Lucan, 152. 
Lucania, 30. 
Luceres, 118. 
Lucian, 150. 
Lucretius, 154. 
Ludi Circenses, 131. 
Ludus Trojae, 131. 
Lugdunensis, 18. 



Luna, 73. 
Lupercalia, 130. 
Luperci, 129. 
Lusitania, 16. 
Lustratio, 130. 
Lycaonia, 51. 
Lyceum, 161. 
Lycia, 50. 
Lycomedes, 91. 
Lydia, 49. 
Lysias, 147. 

M. 
Macedonia, 32. 
Machaon, 93. 
Maeonia, 49. 
Magister Equitum, 124, 
Maia, 80, 82. 
Manes, 73. 
Manipuli, 134. 
Manumissio, 119. 
Manus (Ferreae), 138. 
Mars, 68. 

Gradivus, 129. 

Martial, 155. 
Matronalia, 130. 
Mauritania, 67. 
Maximus (Valerius), 

156. 
Medea, 81, 86. 
Media, 59. 
Medusa, 79. 
Megaera, 71. 
Megalesia, 130. 
Megaric School, 159. 
Megaris, 40. 
Mellte, 160. 
Melpomene, 73. 
Memnon, 96. 
Menoetius, 85, 93. 
Menander, 145. 
Menelaus, 89, 93. 



INDEX 



197 



Mensa, 140. 
Mercurius, 69. 
Menones, 93 
Merope, 82, 87. 
Mesopotamia, 57. 
Messenia, 41. 
Meton, 165. 
Mezentius, 95. 
Minerva, 69. 
Minos, 81. 
Mirmillones, 132. 
Mnemosyne, 84. 
Moesia, 31. 
Moirae, 75. 
Mola salsa, 130. 
Momus, 73. 
Mopsus, 85. 
Morpheus, 73. 
Mors, 126. 
Moschus, 146. 
Mulcta, 126. 
Musse, 73, 170. 
Mysia, 49. 

N. 

Naiades, 73. 
Napaeae, 73. 
Narbonensis, 17. 
Narcissus, 81. 
Nations (Seven Hea- 
then), 55. 
Naumachia, 131. 
Naves Longae, 138. 

Pretoria, 138. 

Nemesis, 73. 
Neoptolemus, 91, 93. 
Nephele, 85. 
Nepos (Cornelius), 155, 
Neptune, 68. 
Nereides, 73. 
Nereus, 73. 
Nestoi, 93. 
17* 



Niobe, 81. 
Nobiles, 119. 
Nomen, 143. 
Nones, 167. 
Noricum, 21. 
Novendiale, 143. 
Numidia, 67. 
Nundinae, 172. 
Nymphae, 73. 

0. 

Oceanides, 73. 
Oceanus, 74. 
Ocreae, 134. 
Ocypete, 79. 
Odeum, 161. 
GEdipus, 86. 
OEnotria, 23. 
Oileus, 85, 92. 
Onerariae, 138. 
Ops, 83. 
Optimates, 119. 
Optiones, 135. 
Orbis, 136. 
Orchestra, 116, 132. 
Orcus, 72. 
Oreades, 73. 
Orestes, 90. 
Orion, 81. 
Orpheus, 81. 
Osiris, 74. 
Ostium, 140. 
Ovatio, 137. 
Ovid, 153. 
Ovlle, 121. 

P. 

, Paenula, 139. 
Palaestina, 53. 
Pales, 74. 
Palilia, 130. 
Palla, 139. 



Palladium, 88, 91. 
Paludamentum, 135. 
Pamphylia, 50. 
Pan, 74. 

Pancratium, 109. 
Pandarus, 96. 
Pandora, 81. 
Pandroseum, 160. 
Pannonia, 22. 
Pantheon, 161. 
Pantheum, 163. 
Paphlagonia, 49. 
Parcaj, 75, 171. 
Parietes, 141. 
Parilia, 130. 
Paris, 88, 96. 
Parma, 135. 
Parthenon, 160. 
Parthenopaeus, 87. 
Parthia, 60. 
Pater Patratus, 128. 
Patres, 119. 

Minorum Gen- 
tium, 120. 

Majorum Gen- 
tium, 120. 

Conscripti, 120. 



Patricii, 118. 
Patroclus, 90, 93. 
Pausanias, 149. 
Pax, 74. 
Pegasus, 81. 
Peleus, 89. 
Pelops, 92. 
Penates, 74. 
Penelope, 94. 
Pentathlon, 131. 
Peraea, 55. 
Periboea, 87. 
Pericles, 147. 
Peripatetic Sect, 159. 
Peristylium, 141. 



198 



INDEX 



Persephone, 74. 
Perseus, 82. 
Persia, 60. 
Persius, 154. 
Personae, 117, 132. 
Phaedrus, 155. 
Phaethon, 82. 
Philemon, 145. 
Philoctetes, 91, 93. 
Phlegethon, 82. 
Phocis, 39. 
Phoebe, 74. 
Phoebus, 74. 
Phoenicia, 53. 
Phoenix, 93. 
Phorcys, 83. 
Phormus, 145. 
Phrixus, 85. 
Phrygia, 51. 
Picenum, 27. 
Pierides, 82. 
Pila, 135, 141. 
Pilani, 134. 
Pileus, 127, 139. 
Pindar, 146. 
Pirithous, 82, 85. 
Pisidia, 50. 
Plato, 151. 
Plautus, 154. 
Plebei, 118. 
Pliny, 157. 

. (Younger), 157. 

Plutarch, 147. 
Pluto, 72, 74. 
Plutus, 74. 
Pnyx, 160, 161. 
Pocula, 140. 
Poeeile, 161. 
Podarces, 88. 
Polites, 89. 

Pollicem premere, 132 
' vertere, 132. 



Pollux, 82. 
Polybius, 147. 
Poly bus, 87. 
Polydorus, 86, 89, 96. 
Polyhymnia, 73. 
Polymnestor, 96. 
Polynices, 87. 
Polyphemus, 82, 94. 
Polyxena, 89, 96. 
Pomona, 74. 
Pontifex Maximus, 

127. 
Pontifices, 127. 
Pontus, 49. 
Popa, 130. 
Populares, 119. 
Porticoes, 161, 163. 
Posidippus, 145. 
Postes, 140. 
Potameides, 73. 
Prsecones, 122. 
Praefectus, 124, 135. 

classii, 138. 

Praeficae, 142. 
Praslusio, 131. 
Praenomen, 143. 
Praetor, 124. 



Proserpina, 74. 
Proteus, 75. 
Prytaneum, 161. 
Psyche, 82. 
Pulpitum, 116. 
Puppis, 113. 
Pyra, 142. 
Pyrrhus, 91, 94. 
Pythagoras, 150. 
Python, 82. 

Q. 

Quadriremes, 113, 138. 
Quaesitores, 126. 
Quaestores, 125. 
Quintilian, 158. 
Quinqueremes, 113, 138. 
Quinquertium, 131. 

R. 
Ramnenses, 118. 
Ramnes, 118. 
Refuge (Cities of), 55. 
Retiarii, 132. 
Rex Sacrificulus, 128. 
Rhadamanthus, 83. 
Rhaetia, 21. 



Peregrinus, 124. Rhea, 83. 
Urbanus, 124. Rhesus, 90. 



Prandium, 139. 
Priam, 88, 96. 
Priapus, 74. 
Principes, 134, 136. 
Pro-Consul, 124. 
Procurator, 125. 
Proletarii, 133. 
Prometheus, 82. 
Propertius, 153. 
Pro-Praetor, 125. 
Propylaea, 160. 
. Prora, 113. 
Proscenium, 116 



Roads, 164. 
Rogus, 142. 
Roma, 162. 
Rome (Hills of), 168. 

(Kings of), 

168. 
Rorarii, 134. 
Rostrum, 113. 
Rudes, 131. 

S. 
Sabinum, 27. 
Sacrificia, 129. 



INDEX. 



199 



6ages (Seven), 169. 
Sagittarii, 134. 
Sagum, 135. 
Salii, 129. 
Sallust, 155. 
Samaria, 54. 
Samnites, 132. 
Samnium, 28. 
Sappho, 145. 
Sarmatia, 32. 

Asiatica, 

56. 

Sarpedon, 97. 
Saturnalia, 130. 
Saturnia, 23. 
Saturnus, 75. 
Satyri, 83. 
Scena, 116. 
Scenici, 131, 132. 
Sceptic Sect, 159. 
Scribse, 122. 
Scutum, 134. 
Scythia, 61. 
Selene, 73. 
Sella Curulis, 124. 
Senatores, 119. 
Senatus, 119, 120. 

Consultum, 

120. 

Seneca, 154, 157. 
Septemtrio, 172. 
Servi, 119. 
Servitus, 126. 
Ship (Tackling of, 

Ac), H3. 
Sibylline Books, 123. 
Sica, 132. 
Sicilia, 30. 
Sicyonia, 42. 
Signa, 136. 
Signiferi, 135. 
Sileni, 83. 



Silenus, 75. 
Silius, 152. 
Silvanus, 75. 
Simonides, 146. 
Sinon, 91. 
Sirenes, 83. 
Sisyphus, 83. 
Socci, 139. 
Socrates, 151. 
Socratic School, 159. 
Sogdiana, 61. 
Sola, 141. 
Solaria, 167. 
Sol, 72. 
Solese, 139. 
Sophocles, 144. 
Sparti, 86. 
Spectio, 127. 
Sphynx, 83, 87. 
Sporades, 44. 
Stadium, 161. 
Statius, 152. 
Sterope, 82. 
Stesichorus, 146. 
Stheno, 79. 
Sthenelus, 94. 
Stoic Sect, 159. 
Stola, 139. 
Strabo, 149. 
Strigiles, 141. 
Strymo, 88. 
Styx, 83. 
Subucula, 138. 
Subitarii, 133. 
Subsolanus, 172. 
Succenturiones, 135. 
Suetonius, 156. 
Suovetaurilia, 130. 
Susiana, 59. 
Susis, 59. 
Syria, 53. 
Syrinx, 74. 



Tabella, 121. 
Tacitus, 156. 
Tali, 141. 
Talio, 126. 
Talthybius, 94. 
Tantalus, 83. 
Tarraconensis, 18, 
Tartarus, 72, 83. 
Taygete, 82. 
Tecmessa, 92. 
Telamon, 85, 92. 
Tellus, 71. 
Templa, 130. 
Temples at Rome, 163. 
Tepidarium, 141. 
Terpsichore, 73. 
Terence, 154. 
Terra, 71. 
Tesserae, 142. 
Testudo, 136. 
Teucer, 88, 94. 
Thales, 150. 
Thalia, 72, 73. 
Theatres at Rome, 163. 
Theatrum, 116, 132. 
Thebais, 65. 
Themis, 75. 
Theocritus, 146. 
Thermae, 141, 163. 
Theseus (Temple of) 

161. 
Thessalia, 37. 
Thetis, 75. 
Thracia, 34. 
Thraces, 132. 
Thorax, 134. 
Thucydides, 146. 
Tibullus, 153. 
Timocles, 145. 
Tiphys, 85. 



200 



INDEX. 



Tiresias, 87. 
Tisiphone, 71. 
Titanes, 84. 
Titienses, 118. 
Tityus, 83. 
Toga, 138. 

Picta, 137, 139. 

Praetexta, 123, 

139. 

Virilis, 139. 

Candida, 138. 

Trabea, 128. 
Transtra, 113. 
Transvectio E«uituin, 

130. 
Triarii, 134, 136. 
Tribuni Plebis, 125. 
Milituin, 126, 

135. 
Tribus, 118. 
Trinacria, 30. 
Trinundinum, 121. 
Tripolitana, 66. 
Triremes, 113, 138. 
Triton, 84. 
Troas, 49. 
Troilus, 89, 97. 
Tros, 88. 
Tuba, 135. 
Tumultuarii, 133. 



Tunica, 138. 

Palmata, 137. 

Laticlavia, 138. 

Angusticlavia, 

138. 
Turuiae, 134. 
Turnus, 95. 
Turris, 136. 
Tuscia, 26. 
Tydeus, 87. 
Tydides, 92. 
Typon, 84. 
Tyrrhenia, 26. 

U. 

Ulysses, 94. 
Umbo, 138. 
Umbria, 27. 
Urania, 73. 
Uranus, 75. 

V. 

Vallum, 135. 
Varro, 158. 
Velites, 134. 
Venatio, 131. 
Venetia, 26. 
Venti, 172. 
Venus, 70. 
Vertumnus, 75. 



Vesta, 69. 

Vestibulum, 140, 141. 
Vise, 162, 164. 
Via Sacra, 162. 
Viatores, 122. 
Victima, 130. 
Vincula, 126. 
Vindelicia, 21. 
Vinea, 136. 
Vinum, 140. 
Virgil, 152. 
Virgines Vestales, 128, 
Vitruvius, 158. 
Vittae, 130. 
Vota, 129. 
Votiva Tabula, 129. 
Vulcan, 68. 

W. 

Winds (Temple of), 18L 
Wines, 140. 

X. 

Xenophon, 147. 
Xystus, 109. 

Z. 

Zeno, 151. 

Zephyrus, 172. 

Zeus (Temple of), 161. 



THE END. 



4. FAGAN, STEREOTTPER. 



C. SHERMAN, PRINTEB. 



W 80 



w 






^o< •♦Jib- -ov* :^^.'. >, 










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.<b \f» Treatment Date: 



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